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PARALLEL SESSION 2A: LAND USE 8 th Int. Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, 1-4 Oct 2012 higher than for field lettuce systems. Figure 4 shows the combined impacts for the scenarios 1 and 2, illustrating that scenario 1, greenfield housing with displaced lettuce production, has a GWP approximately 74 t ha -1 higher than for scenario 2. 4. Discussion Within the agricultural system at both farm and market levels, comparisons can be made both intra-region and inter-region. The larger commercial field farm, LF4, although producing with better economies of scale, exhibited only a marginally smaller GWP at farm level than local Sydney field farms, highlighting that smaller farms can compare favourably with respect to environmental impacts (see Figure 3). For lettuce at the Sydney market, supply chain activities (including road transport) impacted GWP most negatively for the interstate farm, effectively reversing the order of the GWP impacts for the three field farms, resulting in LF4 having the higher GWP impact for lettuce at the Sydney market. The benefit of this method is that both field and supply chain impacts have been assessed, with proximity to market having a positive impact on emissions abatement. Emissions for LF3 were relatively high as a result of infrastructure requirements and electricity demand, which in NSW is predominantly coal fired. Farm level data has illustrated that hydroponic systems are not necessarily more environmentally friendly, however, if an alternate electricity mix were available for which emissions could be significantly reduced, the hydroponic farm would see the most dramatic benefits. Avoiding the use of ‘average’ data obtained a more realistic analysis of environmental impacts. Preliminary results are indicating dramatic reductions in global warming potential when farm-level data is used compared to Australian average estimates. For example, results from this project are orders of magnitude less than average estimates calculated for horticultural sectors, where farm gross margin data was used to make GWP claims (O'Halloran et al., 2008). Confidence in the values reported in this project was assured by comparison to contemporary lettuce LCAs (Marton et al., 2010; Milà i Canals et al., 2008). Even with truncation errors of up to 87% reported as part of process LCA (Crawford 2011), the benefits of using local data over use of averages are dramatic. Collecting data for urban systems presented a greater challenge than collection from farms. Building LCA literature was oriented to individual buildings or building components, with a lack of literature providing detailed bills of quantities for the housing styles to be modelled or data on housing systems. Land preparation, demolition, waste, infrastructure installation and revised bills of quantities will be included in a subsequent phase of the project in order to improve authenticity and reduce uncertainty in the greenfield and infill models. Although inter-farm differences in GWP of up to 25 percent were observed for field lettuce, GWP impacts within the agricultural production systems proved less significant compared to the larger impacts of the urban systems (Figure 3). With the urban system dominating impacts, the interstate farm LF4 would need to demonstrate significant improvements in environmental impacts to trade-off against greenfield expansion, which as shown in scenario 1, was not observed. This indicates that the region where lettuce is produced is less relevant to overall GWP impacts than the urban housing model implemented. The focus becomes less on how best to produce lettuce and more on how housing systems can be leveraged to support emissions abatement. A further challenge within the method included the need to use European derived Ecoinvent data in SimaPro due to absence of representative Australian processes. The electricity mix in European processes using nuclear energy may give more conservative impacts than using energy from the dominantly coal fired mix in Australia. Future work will include further data collection from regional locations, improving the urban modelling and analysing the consequences of urbanising Sydney’s horticultural lands in a resource constrained and climatically uncertain future. Applying time limits to future scenarios, by which time marginal suppliers and technologies may have changed, is a further challenge for management. 5. Conclusion The benefit of CLCA at the urban-agricultural intersection has been to provide a new perspective on periurban land-use change. Scenarios for producing lettuce versus producing housing were evaluated for GWP. Preliminary analysis for the two scenarios modelled has illustrated that, although differences were observed within the agricultural system, it is the urban housing system dominating GWP impacts. Policy focus on urban housing systems for greenhouse gas abatement in the regional context is recommended. 6. References ABS 2010. Value of Agricultural Commodities Produced, Australia, 2008-09, 'Table 1 VACP - All Commodities - National, Australia', data cube: excel spreadsheet, cat. no. 7503.0, (Data Cube All commodities, by Australia, State and Statistical Division). 153
PARALLEL SESSION 2A: LAND USE 8 th Int. Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, 1-4 Oct 2012 Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. Viewed 5 October 2010 . ARUP, 2010a. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Snapshot: 2036 Metropolitan Plan Review. NSW Department of Planning, Sydney. ARUP, 2010b. World Leading Practice in Emissions Reductions - Spatial Policy. NSW Department of Planning, Sydney. Brandao, M. 2010. Food or fuel: how to best use land, in: Proceedings of LCA food 2010, vol. 1, pp. 59-64. Camagni, R., Gibelli, M.C., Rigamonti, P. 2002. Urban mobility and urban form: the social and environmental costs of different patterns of urban expansion. Ecol. Econ. 40, 199-216. Choy, D.L., Sutherland, C., Gleeson, B., Sipe, N., Dodson, J., 2008. Change and Continuity in Peri-urban Australia: Peri-urban Futures & Sustainable Development. Griffith University, Brisbane. Condon, P.M., Mullinix, K., Fallick, A., Harcourt, M., 2010. Agriculture on the edge:strategies to abate urban encroachment onto agricultural lands by promoting viable human-scale agriculture as an integral element of urbanization. Int. J. Agr. Sustain. 8, 104- 15. Crawford, R., Fuller, R., 2011. Energy and greenhouse gas emissions implications of alternative housing types for Australia. Paper presented to State of Australian Cities (SOAC) National Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 29 November - 2 December 2011. Viewed 28 March 2012 . Crawford, R.H., 2011. Life cycle assessment in the built environment. Spon Press, Oxon, USA. Dart Energy, 2011. NSW Market Overview. Dart Energy. Viewed 11 May 2012, . Duffy, A., 2009. Land use planning in Ireland - a life cycle energy analysis of recent residential development in the Greater Dublin Area. Int. J. Life Cycle Ass. 14, 268-77. Fuller, R., Crawford, R., 2011. Impact of past and future residential housing development patterns on energy demand and related emissions. J. Hous.and the Built Environ. 26, 165-83. Garnaut, R., 2008. The Garnaut Climate Change Review. Viewed 9 May 2012, . Houston, P., 2005. Re-valuing the fringe: Some findings on the value of agricultural production in Australia's peri-urban regions. Geogr. Res. 43, 209-23. Marton, S., Kägi, T., Wettstein, D., 2010. Lower global warming potential of cucumbers and lettuce from a greenhouse heated by waste heat, in: LCA Food Conference Proceedings, Bari, Italy, vol. 1, pp. 531-6. Milà i Canals, L., Muñoz, I., Hospido, A., Plassman, K., McLaren, S., 2008. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of domestic vs. imported vegetables. Centre for Environmental Strategy, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK. NSW Department of Planning 2010, Metropolitan Plan for Sydney 2036, NSW Department of Planning, viewed 19 May 2010, . O'Halloran, N., Fisher, P., Rab, A., 2008. Vegetable Industry Carbon Footprint Scoping Study Discussion Paper 4: Preliminary estimation of the carbon footprint of the Australian vegetable industry, VG08107: Viewed 19 April 2011, . OECD, 1999. 505.4 Bill of quantities for an apartment: Eurostat-OECD PPP Programme 1999 Comparison of construction prices for residential buildings, vol. rev. 12-89. Viewed 1 May 2012, . Rossi, B., Marique, A.F., Reiter, S., 2012. Life-cycle assessment of residential buildings in three different European locations, case study. Build. Environ. 51, 402-7. van Veenhuizen, R., Danso, G., 2007. Profitability and sustainability of urban and peri-urban agriculture. FAO, Rome. 154
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