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108 Diagnosing Corruption in Ethiopia
General Perceptions of Corruption
Levels of corruption. Central officials and public officials were asked
about their perception of general levels of corruption. Ninety-five percent
of central officials and 60 percent of public officials indicated awareness
of some instances of misappropriation of funds in the preceding two
years. This suggests higher levels of awareness of corruption among the
more senior, central officials.
The same groups of respondents provided their perceptions of changes
in levels of corruption since 2004. Asked about perceived levels of corruption
in 2004, 2007, and 2009:
• Central officials indicated that corruption levels among public officials in
general had slightly decreased over this period and that corruption has
never been widespread among public officials in the education sector.
• Public officials indicated that general levels of corruption had decreased
markedly over this period. Corruption in the education sector was also
perceived to have decreased, though from a much lower base than
among public officials in general. Specifically, the proportion of
responses considering general levels of corruption to be “widespread”
among public sector officials fell from 22 percent in 2004 to 7 percent
in 2009, while the equivalent figures for those involved in education
were 7 percent and 2 percent, respectively.
Taken together, these responses reinforce the sense that levels of corruption
in the education sector are perceived to be relatively low.
What constitutes corruption. In Ethiopia, the pattern of perception suggests
that outright bribery is perceived to be more corrupt than, for
example, favoritism or the falsification of documentation. There is also a
sense that some practices, such as expressing gratitude to a client through
the giving of a small gift, are normal business practice and not necessarily
corrupt. Finally, there is an underlying acceptance among many that the
state has the right to intervene in the market if that is considered to be in
the national interest, and there is little sense that such interventions could
be at variance with ongoing efforts to promote the level playing field
needed for effective privatization of service provision, including in the
education sector.
Where corruption occurs and who initiates it. The survey responses of
public officials indicate that they hold the following perceptions: