Climate change impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2016

Multi-sectoral vulnerability and risks
Demographic trends can also affect cities' vulnerability
to climate impacts. In general, the elderly are more
sensitive to a variety of climate-related stressors:
extreme weather events (Fernandez et al., 2002;
Brooks et al., 2005), high temperatures and the
resulting mortality and morbidity (Huynen et al., 2001;
Kovats and Hajat, 2008) and respiratory problems
related to forest fires (Johnston et al., 2012). The
proportion of elderly people in cities is highest
in the area extending from Italy to Germany and
into northern Spain. In Belgium and Germany, the
proportion of elderly people in cities is usually similar
to the proportion of elderly people elsewhere in the
country, whereas cities in northern Italy tend to have
higher proportions of elderly people in cities than the
country average. For other countries, such as Bulgaria,
France, Romania, southern Spain and the United
Kingdom, the proportion of elderly people in most
cities is lower than the country average (EEA, 2012,
2015). The projected trend of a continuously ageing
European population with particularly high ageing
levels in eastern Europe (see Section 6.1) is very likely
to apply to cities as well. Therefore, the vulnerability to
climate change is likely to further increase.
Additional factors also contribute to the climate
vulnerability of cities. Of particular relevance are
communities with low socio-economic status and
social inequity (Kaźmierczak and Cavan, 2011).
Comparative data for cities on a European level are,
however, scarce.
6.6.2 Response capacity
Cities across Europe are differently prepared for
climate change. Differences in the many economic,
technological, institutional and social factors influence
the capacity of cities to adapt to climate challenges.
Knowledge, values and perceptions pose social limits
to adaptation and can severely increase vulnerability,
but they are also mutable (Adger et al., 2008). Being
unaware of or neglecting risks, or not having the
knowledge of how to prepare themselves leaves
people, businesses and infrastructures unprotected
and more vulnerable to climate change and extreme
weather events. The map book on urban vulnerability
shows different maps with the different factors
affecting the generic response capacity (trust,
education, socio-economic status, commitment of city
administrations) per city (EEA, 2015). The link between
such generic categories and the response capacity is,
however, indirect and resources are not always used
to their full potential.
Knowledge and funds for initiating adaption action
are generally available for cities in Europe. However,
the distribution and presentation of knowledge are
not always tailored to local stakeholders' needs, which
act together with constrained capacities in terms of
staff and skills in a number of local governments, to
limit the access to and application of the available
knowledge and funding. Effective governance is key
to overcoming these barriers. This includes horizontal
governance in cities that builds on synergies and uses
expertise and capacities in related policy areas, as well
as complementary action from regional and national
governments, the EU and other organisations. These
can create a supportive legislative, institutional and
financial framework and provide knowledge, such
as the EU initiatives and programmes Covenant of
Mayors for Climate and Energy/Mayors Adapt ( 131 ),
LIFE+ ( 132 ), Horizon 2020 ( 133 ) and ESI Funds ( 134 ), among
others (EEA, 2012, 2016; Revi et al., 2014).
A variety of response options exist; for example,
spatial planning can constrain urban sprawl, and
urban design and building regulations can support
building more climate resilience. Green infrastructure
(green areas, green facades, roofs, trees) help to cool
cities and drain excess rain water after cloudbursts.
Green infrastructure is a key element in adapting
cities to climate change, as it provides multiple
additional benefits, such as recreational areas, higher
attractiveness of the city, health, quality of life, etc.
(Bowler et al., 2010; Steeneveld et al., 2011; Rahman
et al., 2013). On the other hand, the compact city
model is a planning paradigm for many sustainable city
approaches. It enables a higher efficiency of energy use
and transport, but leaves less space for green urban
areas. Thus, an intelligent urban design that uses every
available space for green infrastructure is necessary.
Many climate change impact problems cannot
be solved at the city scale. In particular, flooding,
droughts and forest fires, as well as heat, require joint
approaches with the surrounding sub-urban and rural
areas. For example, if the retention area upstream is
limited, the pressure on dikes downstream under a
flooding event will be even higher (see Box 6.3).
( 131 ) http://mayors-adapt.eu.
( 132 ) http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life.
( 133 ) https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020.
( 134 ) https://www.fi-compass.eu/esif/european-structural-and-investment-funds-esif.
310 Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2016 | An indicator-based report