Climate change impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2016

Strengthening the knowledge base
number of variables, increasingly with open data access,
and there is progress in other areas, through global
networks for glaciers and permafrost, for example.
Standards, methods and data exchange protocols
for key hydrological variables have been developed.
An integrated approach to terrestrial observation
is still lacking, however. GCOS is developing a new
implementation plan, due to be published in 2016,
describing further actions that are needed in the coming
years.
Specific conclusions from the report include the
following for the in situ and other non space-based
components of the observing system:
• The performance of the Argo network and its floats
in profiling temperature and salinity has been
outstanding. The network is now expanding into
marginal seas and high latitudes.
• There have been improvements in the coverage
and quality of measurements for a number of
more established in situ networks, including the
main meteorological networks.
• Several oceanic and terrestrial networks making in
situ measurements and networks for ground‐based
remote-sensing of atmospheric composition have
been established or significantly expanded in
recent years.
• Fewer observations have been provided recently by
some atmospheric composition and marine buoy
networks.
• Surface meteorological measurements from ships
have declined in number over the major parts of
ocean basins, but have increased near coasts.
• Some gaps in the coverage of networks over land
have been reduced.
• The recovery of historical data has progressed well
in some respects, but is still limited in extent and
hampered by restrictive data policies.
• The generation of data products, for example
on surface air temperature, humidity and
precipitation, continues to improve.
• Sustaining observing system activities that are
initiated with short-term research funding is a
recurrent issue.
Table 7.1
Essential climate variables that are currently feasible for global implementation and
addressing UNFCCC requirements
Atmospheric Surface: ( a ) Air temperature, wind speed and direction, water vapour, pressure, precipitation, surface
radiation budget
Upper air: ( b )
Temperature, wind speed and direction, water vapour, cloud properties, Earth radiation
budget (including solar irradiance)
Composition:
Carbon dioxide, methane, other long-lived greenhouse gases ( c ) ozone and aerosol
supported by their precursors ( d )
Oceanic Surface: ( e ) Sea surface temperature, sea surface salinity, sea level, sea state, sea ice, surface current,
ocean colour, carbon dioxide partial pressure, ocean acidity, phytoplankton
Sub-surface:
Temperature, salinity, current, nutrients, carbon dioxide partial pressure, ocean acidity,
oxygen, tracers
Terrestrial River discharge, water use, groundwater, lakes, snow cover, glaciers and ice caps, ice
sheets, permafrost, albedo, land cover (including vegetation type), fraction of absorbed
photosynthetically active radiation, leaf area index, above‐ground biomass, soil carbon,
fire disturbance, soil moisture
Note:
( a ) Including measurements at standardised but globally varying heights in close proximity to the surface.
( b ) Up to the stratopause.
( c ) Including N 2 O, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6 ), and perfluorocarbons
(PFCs).
( d ) In particular NO 2 , sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), formaldehyde (HCHO), and carbon monoxide (CO).
( e ) Including measurements within the surface mixed layer, usually within the upper 15 m.
Source: Adapted from Bojinski et al., 2014.
314 Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2016 | An indicator-based report