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Belch: Advertising and
Promotion, Sixth Edition
III. Analyzing the
Communication Process
6. Source, Message, and
Channel Factors
A study by Anand-Keller and Block provides support for this perspective
on how fear operates. 58 They examined the conditions under which low- and
high-fear appeals urging people to stop smoking are likely to be effective.
Their study indicated that a communication using a low level of fear may be
ineffective because it results in insufficient motivation to elaborate on the
harmful consequences of engaging in the destructive behavior (smoking).
However, an appeal arousing high levels of fear was ineffective because it
resulted in too much elaboration on the harmful consequences. This led to
defensive tendencies such as message avoidance and interfered with processing
of recommended solutions to the problem.
Another approach to the curvilinear explanation of fear is the protection
motivation model. 59 According to this theory, four cognitive appraisal
processes mediate the individual’s response to the threat: appraising (1) the
information available regarding the severity of the perceived threat, (2) the
perceived probability that the threat will occur, (3) the perceived ability of a
coping behavior to remove the threat, and (4) the individual’s perceived ability
to carry out the coping behavior.
This model suggests that both the cognitive appraisal of the information in
a fear appeal message and the emotional response mediate persuasion. An
audience is more likely to continue processing threat-related information, thereby
increasing the likelihood that a coping behavior will occur.
The protection motivation model suggests that ads using fear appeals should give
the target audience information about the severity of the threat, the probability of its
occurrence, the effectiveness of a coping response, and the ease with which the
response can be implemented. 60 For example, the Havrix ad in Exhibit 6-14 discusses
how tourists can pick up hepatitis A when traveling to high-risk areas outside the
United States and describes the severity of the problem. However, the ad reduces anxiety
by offering a solution to the problem—a vaccination with Havrix.
It is also important to consider how the target audience may respond. Fear appeals
are more effective when the message recipient is self-confident and prefers to cope
with dangers rather than avoid them. 61 They are also more effective among nonusers
of a product than among users. Thus, a fear appeal may be better at keeping nonsmokers
from starting than persuading smokers to stop.
In reviewing research on fear appeals, Herbert Rotfeld has argued that some of the
studies may be confusing different types of threats and the level of potential harm portrayed
in the message with fear, which is an emotional response. 62 He concludes that
the relationship between the emotional responses of fear or arousal and persuasion is
not curvilinear but rather is monotonic and positive, meaning that
higher levels of fear do result in greater persuasion. However, Rotfeld
notes that not all fear messages are equally effective, because different
people fear different things. Thus they will respond differently to the
same threat, so the strongest threats are not always the most persuasive.
This suggests that marketers using fear appeals must consider the emotional
responses generated by the message and how they will affect
reactions to the message.
Humor Appeals Humorous ads are often the best known and best
remembered of all advertising messages. Many advertisers, including
FedEx, Little Caesar’s pizza, Pepsi, and Budweiser, have used humor
appeals effectively. Humor is usually presented through radio and TV
commercials as these media lend themselves to the execution of humorous
messages. However, humor is occasionally used in print ads as well.
The clever PayDay ad shown in Exhibit 6-15 is an excellent example of
how humor can be used to attract attention and convey a key selling
point in a magazine ad.
Advertisers use humor for many reasons. Humorous messages attract
and hold consumers’ attention. They enhance effectiveness by putting
consumers in a positive mood, increasing their liking of the ad itself and
© The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2003
Exhibit 6-14 This ad uses
a mild fear appeal but
reduces anxiety by offering
a solution to the problem
Exhibit 6-15 This clever
ad is an example of how
humor can be executed in
print media
185
Chapter Six Source, Message, and Channel Factors