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A FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING RESEARCH 83 Third, a ‘good’ hypothesis is written in a form that can yield measurable results. For example, in the hypothesis people work better in quiet rather than noisy conditions it is important to define the operations for ‘work better’, ‘quiet’ and ‘noisy’. Here ‘perform better’ might mean ‘obtain a higher score on the mathematics test’, ‘quiet’ might mean ‘silence’, and ‘noisy’ might mean ‘having music playing’. Hence the fully operationalized hypothesis might be people obtain a higher score on amathematicstestwhentestedwhenthereissilence rather than when there is music playing. One can see here that the score is measurable and that there is zero noise, i.e. a measure of the noise level. In conducting research using hypotheses one has to be prepared to use several hypotheses (Muijs 2004: 16) in order to catch the complexity of the phenomenon being researched, and not least because mediating variables have to be included in the research. For example, the degree of ‘willing cooperation’ (dependent variable) in an organization’s staff is influenced by professional leadership (independent variable) and the personal leadership qualities of the leader (mediating variable: Mastrangelo et al. 2004) – which needs to be operationalized more specifically, of course. There is also the need to consider the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis (discussed in Part Five) in research that is cast into a hypothesis testing model. The null hypothesis states that, for example, there is no relationship between two variables, or that there has been no difference in participants’ scores on a pretest and a post-test of history, or that there is no difference between males and females in respect of their science examination results. The alternative hypothesis states, for example: there is acorrelation between motivation and performance; there is a difference between males’ and females’ scores on science; there is a difference between the pretest and post-test scores on history. The alternative hypothesis is often supported when the null hypothesis is ‘not supported’, i.e. if the null hypothesis is not supported then the alternative hypothesis is. The two kinds of hypothesis are usually written thus: H 0 : H 1 : thenull hypothesis thealternativehypothesis. We address the hypothesis testing approach fully in Part Five. Distinguishing methods from methodologies In planning research it is important to clarify a distinction that needs to be made between methodology and methods, approaches and instruments, styles of research and ways of collecting data. Several of the later chapters of this book are devoted to specific instruments for collecting data; for example: interviews questionnaires observation tests accounts biographies and case studies role-playing; simulations personal constructs. The decision on which instrument (method) to use frequently follows from an important earlier decision on which kind (methodology) of research to undertake, for example: a survey an experiment an in-depth ethnography action research case study research testing and assessment. Subsequent chapters of this book set out each of these research styles, their principles, rationales and purposes, and the instrumentation and data types that seem suitable for them. For conceptual clarity it is possible to set out some key features of these models (Box 3.2). It is intended that, when decisions have been reached on the stage of research design and methodology, a clear plan of action will have been prepared. To this Chapter 3
84 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Box 3.2 Elements of research styles Model Purposes Foci Key terms Characteristics Survey Gathering large-scale data in order to make generalizations Describes and explains Experiment Ethnography Generating statistically manipulable data Gathering context-free data Comparing under controlled conditions Making generalizations about efficacy Objective measurement of treatment Establishing causality Portrayal of events in subjects’ terms Subjective and reporting of multiple perspectives Description, understanding and explanation of a specific situation Opinions Scores Outcomes Conditions Ratings Initial states, intervention and outcomes Randomized controlled trials Perceptions and views of participants Issues as they emerge over time Measuring Testing Representativeness Generalizability Pretest and post-test Identification, isolation and control of key variables Generalizations Comparing Causality Subjectivity Honesty, authenticity Non-generalizable Multiple perspectives Exploration and rich reporting of a specific context Represents wide population Gathers numerical data Much use of questionnaires and assessment/test data Control and experimental groups Treats situations like a laboratory Causes due to experimental intervention Does not judge worth Simplistic Context specific Formative and emergent Responsive to emerging features Allows room for judgements and multiple perspectives Emergent issues Wide database gathered over a long period of time Time-consuming to process data continued
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Research Methods in Education This
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First published 2007 by Routledge 2
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Contents List of boxes xiii Acknowl
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CONTENTS ix Searching for research
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CONTENTS xi Part 5 Data analysis 22
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xiv BOXES 13.1 Independent and depe
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xvi BOXES 24.54 Frequencies and per
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xviii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Springer,for
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2 INTRODUCTION Package for the Soci
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1 The nature of inquiry - Setting t
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TWO CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY 7
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POSITIVISM 9 Box 1.1 The subjective
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 15 an educate
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CRITICISMS OF POSITIVISM AND THE SC
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ALTERNATIVES TO POSITIVISTIC SOCIAL
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A QUESTION OF TERMINOLOGY: THE NORM
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PHENOMENOLOGY, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND
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CRITICISMS OF THE NATURALISTIC AND
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CRITICAL EDUCAT
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CRITICISMS OF APPROACHES FROM CRITI
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CURRICULUM RESE
Page 52 and 53: THE EMERGING PARADIGM OF COMPLEXITY
Page 54 and 55: FEMINIST RESEARCH 35 deconstructin
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Page 58 and 59: FEMINIST RESEARCH 39 Research must
Page 60 and 61: RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 41 particul
Page 62 and 63: RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 43 The age
Page 64 and 65: RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 45 to exten
Page 66 and 67: METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 47 too easi
Page 68: Part Two Planning educational resea
Page 71 and 72: 52 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
Page 97 and 98: 3 Planning educational research Int
Page 99 and 100: 80 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH t
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Page 105 and 106: 86 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
Page 115 and 116: 96 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Or
Page 117 and 118: 98 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Pa
Page 119 and 120: 4 Sampling Introduction The quality
Page 121 and 122: 102 SAMPLING sample of 200 might be
Page 123 and 124: 104 SAMPLING Box 4.1 Sample size, c
Page 125 and 126: 106 SAMPLING would be insufficient
Page 127 and 128: 108 SAMPLING The formula assumes th
Page 129 and 130: 110 SAMPLING school governors, scho
Page 131 and 132: 112 SAMPLING terms of sex, a random
Page 133 and 134: 114 SAMPLING the required sample si
Page 135 and 136: 116 SAMPLING Snowball sampling In s
Page 137 and 138: 118 SAMPLING the kind of sample (d
Page 139 and 140: 120 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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134 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY It is
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136 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY using
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138 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY includ
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140 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY leadin
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142 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY social
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144 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY this i
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146 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY prese
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148 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY by ass
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150 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validi
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152 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY typica
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154 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY people
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156 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
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158 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY sensit
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160 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY certif
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162 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY how m
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164 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY operat
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7 Naturalistic and ethnographic res
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ELEMENTS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY 16
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 171
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CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 187 Relatio
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SOME PROBLEMS WITH ETHNOGRAPHIC AND
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8 Historical and documentary resear
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DATA COLLECTION 193 One can see fro
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WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 195 Ext
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THE USE OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS 197
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LIFE HISTORIES 199 Box 8.2 Atypolog
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 201 Documentar
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 203 What are
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9 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sect
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SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 207
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PLANNING A SURVEY 209 structured or
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
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EVENT HISTORY ANALYSIS 225 may be p
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 227 packages
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 229 instruc
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 231 Box 10.1
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 237 Witte et
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INTERNET-BASED EXPERIMENTS 239 requ
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INTERNET-BASED INTERVIEWS 241 ‘ne
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SEARCHING FOR RESEARCH MATERIALS ON
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 245 autho
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 247 computer s
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 249 On the oth
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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 25
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11 Case studies What is a case stud
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 255 (providing
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 257 argue that
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EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF CASE STUDY 259
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PLANNING A CASE STUDY 261 accounts
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CONCLUSION 263 In the narrativ
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CO-RELATIONAL AND CRITERION GROUPS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EX POST FACTO RE
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DESIGNING AN EX POST FACTO INVESTIG
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PROCEDURES IN EX POST FACTO RESEARC
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INTRODUCTION 273 Box 13.1 Independe
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 275 motor
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 277 2 Sub
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 279 textb
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 281 Facto
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A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: THE NO
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PROCEDURES IN CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT
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EXAMPLES FROM EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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14 Action research Introduction Act
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL PRAXIS
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 305
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SOME PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL MATT
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CONCLUSION 313 3 Actionresearchreso
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15 Questionnaires Introduction The
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APPROACHING THE PLANNING OF A QUEST
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 321 If
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 323 de
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 325 Ra
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 327 Ve
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 329 I
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 331 Fu
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ASKING SENSITIVE QUESTIONS 333 and
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AVOIDING PITFALLS IN QUESTION WRITI
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QUESTIONNAIRES CONTAINING FEW VERBA
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COVERING LETTERS OR SHEETS AND FOLL
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PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 341 Nove
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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUESTIO
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ADMINISTERING QUESTIONNAIRES 345 is
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PROCESSING QUESTIONNAIRE DATA 347 B
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16 Interviews Introduction The use
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PURPOSES OF THE INTERVIEW 351 appli
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 353 closed quant
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 355 One can clus
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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GROUP INTERVIEWING 373 an intro
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INTERVIEWING CHILDREN 375 taking pl
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THE NON-DIRECTIVE INTERVIEW AND THE
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 379 By mean
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 381 questi
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERVIEWING 383
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 389 completeness
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ACCOUNT GATHERING IN EDUCATIONAL RE
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STRENGTHS OF THE ETHOGENIC APPROACH
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A NOTE ON STORIES 395 instruments t
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INTRODUCTION 397 the physical s
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 399 Box 18.1
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 401 Box 18.2
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 403 or event
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 409 Box 18.3
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SOME CAUTIONARY COMMENTS 411 ob
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CONCLUSION 413 the data mean. This
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NORM-REFERENCED, CRITERION-REFERENC
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COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED TESTS AND RES
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 419 achieveme
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 421 Select the
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 423 where A = t
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 425 true/fal
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 427 short-answe
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 429 demonstrate
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 431 (e.g. to as
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COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING 433 H
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20 Personal constructs Introduction
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ALLOTTING ELEMENTS TO CONSTRUCTS 43
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 439 inv
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 441 Box
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SOME EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF REPERTO
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GRID TECHNIQUE AND AUDIO/VIDEO LESS
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FOCUSED GRIDS, NON-VERBAL GRIDS, EX
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INTRODUCTION 449 Box 21.1 Dimension
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ROLE-PLAYING VERSUS DECEPTION: THE
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THE USES OF ROLE-PLAYING 453 of
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ROLE-PLAYING IN AN EDUCATIONAL SETT
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EVALUATING ROLE-PLAYING AND OTHER S
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22 Approaches to qualitative data a
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TABULATING DATA 463 data set reprod
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TABULATING DATA 465 Box 22.4 Studen
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FIVE WAYS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENT
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS FOR ANALYSING
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23 Content analysis and grounded th
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 477
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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GROUNDED THEORY 491 data, thereby c
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GROUNDED THEORY 493 fragments are t
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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24 Quantitative data analysis Intro
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DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATIST
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DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 515 alongt
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 517 hands
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HYPOTHESIS TESTING 519 selection fr
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EFFECT SIZE 521 differential measur
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EFFECT SIZE 523 Box 24.17 The Leven
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THE CHI-SQUARE TEST 525 The Effect
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DEGREES OF FREEDOM 527 Box 24.22 A2
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 529 Box 24.23
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 531 found and
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 533 Box 24.26
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 535 Many usef
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 537 we know or
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 539 Box 24.32 S
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 541 Box 24.35 S
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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25 Multidimensional measurement and
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 561 Box 25.1 Rank o
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 563 Box 25.3 The st
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 565 Box 25.5 Ascree
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 567 Box 25.7 The ro
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 569 The school
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 571 sco
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 573 Box
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 575 Box
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EXAMPLES OF STUDIES USING MULTIDIME
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTILEVEL MODELLING 583 Degrees of
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CLUSTER ANALYSIS 585 Box 25.22 Clus
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→ → → → HOW MANY SAMPLES 58
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HOW MANY SAMPLES 589 Box 26.4 Choos
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ASSUMPTIONS OF TESTS 591 Box 26.5 c
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Notes 1 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY - SET
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NOTES 595 Gender and Careers. Lewes
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NOTES 597 is widespread, indeed the
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Bibliography Acker, S. (1989) Teach
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 601 Bannister, D. and
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 603 Brenner, M., Brown
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 605 Cohen, L. and Holl
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 607 or case-based Euro
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 609 Fendler, L. (1999)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 611 the Powerful in Ed
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 613 Hanna, G. S. (1993
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 615 Jones, S. (1987) T
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 617 IL: Bureau of Econ
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 619 McNiff, J., Lomax,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 621 Morrison, K. R. B.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 623 Patton, M. Q. (198
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 625 Muliak and J. H. S
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 627 Smith, M. L. and G
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 629 Thorne, B. (1994)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 631 Whyte, W. F. (1993
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INDEX Absolutism 51, 61-2 Access 51
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INDEX 635 face validity see validit
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INDEX 637 qualitative research 19-2
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