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Contents List of boxes xiii Acknowledgements xvii Introduction 1 Part 1 The context of educational research 1 The nature of inquiry – Setting the field Introduction 5 The search for truth 5 Two conceptions of social reality 7 Positivism 9 The assumptions and nature of science 11 The tools of science 14 The scientific method 15 Criticisms of positivism and the scientific method 17 Alternatives to positivistic social science: naturalistic approaches 19 Aquestionofterminology:thenormative and interpretive paradigms 21 Phenomenology, ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism 22 Criticisms of the naturalistic and interpretive approaches 25 Critical theory and critical educational research 26 Criticisms of approaches from critical theory 29 Critical theory and curriculum research 30 Asummaryofthethreeparadigms 32 The emerging paradigm of complexity theory 33 Feminist research 34 Research and evaluation 41 Research, politics and policy-making 46 Methods and methodology 47 Part 2 Planning educational research 2 The ethics of educational and social research Introduction 51 Informed consent 52 Access and acceptance 55 The field of ethics 58 Sources of tension 58 Voices of experience 61 Ethical dilemmas 62 Ethics and research methods in education 69 Ethics and evaluative research 70 Research and regulation: ethical codes and review 71 Sponsored research 74 Responsibilities to the research community 75 Conclusion 75 3 Planning educational research Introduction 78 Aframeworkforplanningresearch 78 Aplanningmatrixforresearch 87
viii CONTENTS Managing the planning of research 93 Aworkedexample 95 Conclusion 98 4 Sampling Introduction 100 The sample size 101 Sampling error 106 The representativeness of the sample 108 The access to the sample 109 The sampling strategy to be used 110 Probability samples 110 Non-probability samples 113 Planning a sampling strategy 117 Conclusion 117 5 Sensitive educational research What is sensitive research 119 Sampling and access 121 Ethical issues in sensitive research 124 Researching powerful people 127 Asking questions 130 Conclusion 131 6 Validity and reliability Defining validity 133 Triangulation 141 Ensuring validity 144 Reliability in quantitative research 146 Reliability in qualitative research 148 Validity and reliability in interviews 150 Validity and reliability in experiments 155 Validity and reliability in questionnaires 157 Validity and reliability in observations 158 Validity and reliability in tests 159 Validity and reliability in life histories 164 Part 3 Styles of educational research 7 Naturalistic and ethnographic research Elements of naturalistic inquiry 167 Planning naturalistic research 171 Critical ethnography 186 Some problems with ethnographic and naturalistic approaches 188 8 Historical and documentary research Introduction 191 Choice of subject 192 Data collection 193 Evaluation 194 Writing the research report 195 The use of quantitative methods 197 Life histories 198 Documentary research 201 9 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sectional and trend studies Introduction 205 Some preliminary considerations 207 Planning a survey 208 Survey sampling 211 Longitudinal, cross-sectional and trend studies 211 Strengths and weaknesses of longitudinal, cohort and cross-sectional studies 214 Postal, interview and telephone surveys 218 Event history analysis 224 10 Internet-based research and computer usage Introduction 226 Internet-based surveys 226 Internet-based experiments 239 Internet-based interviews 241
Page 2: Research Methods in Education This
Page 5 and 6: First published 2007 by Routledge 2
Page 10 and 11: CONTENTS ix Searching for research
Page 12: CONTENTS xi Part 5 Data analysis 22
Page 15 and 16: xiv BOXES 13.1 Independent and depe
Page 17 and 18: xvi BOXES 24.54 Frequencies and per
Page 19 and 20: xviii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Springer,for
Page 21 and 22: 2 INTRODUCTION Package for the Soci
Page 24 and 25: 1 The nature of inquiry - Setting t
Page 26 and 27: TWO CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY 7
Page 28 and 29: POSITIVISM 9 Box 1.1 The subjective
Page 30 and 31: THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
Page 32 and 33: THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
Page 34 and 35: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 15 an educate
Page 36 and 37: CRITICISMS OF POSITIVISM AND THE SC
Page 38 and 39: ALTERNATIVES TO POSITIVISTIC SOCIAL
Page 40 and 41: A QUESTION OF TERMINOLOGY: THE NORM
Page 42 and 43: PHENOMENOLOGY, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND
Page 44 and 45: CRITICISMS OF THE NATURALISTIC AND
Page 46 and 47: CRITICAL THEORY AND CRITICAL EDUCAT
Page 48 and 49: CRITICISMS OF APPROACHES FROM CRITI
Page 50 and 51: CRITICAL THEORY AND CURRICULUM RESE
Page 52 and 53: THE EMERGING PARADIGM OF COMPLEXITY
Page 54 and 55: FEMINIST RESEARCH 35 deconstructin
Page 56 and 57: FEMINIST RESEARCH 37 respecting d
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 39 Research must
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 41 particul
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 43 The age
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 45 to exten
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METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 47 too easi
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Part Two Planning educational resea
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52 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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3 Planning educational research Int
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80 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH t
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82 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH de
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84 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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96 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Or
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98 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Pa
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4 Sampling Introduction The quality
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102 SAMPLING sample of 200 might be
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104 SAMPLING Box 4.1 Sample size, c
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106 SAMPLING would be insufficient
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108 SAMPLING The formula assumes th
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110 SAMPLING school governors, scho
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112 SAMPLING terms of sex, a random
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114 SAMPLING the required sample si
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116 SAMPLING Snowball sampling In s
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118 SAMPLING the kind of sample (d
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120 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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134 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY It is
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136 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY using
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138 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY includ
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140 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY leadin
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142 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY social
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144 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY this i
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146 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY prese
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148 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY by ass
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150 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validi
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152 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY typica
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154 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY people
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156 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
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158 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY sensit
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160 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY certif
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162 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY how m
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164 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY operat
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7 Naturalistic and ethnographic res
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ELEMENTS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY 16
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 171
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CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 187 Relatio
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SOME PROBLEMS WITH ETHNOGRAPHIC AND
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8 Historical and documentary resear
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DATA COLLECTION 193 One can see fro
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WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 195 Ext
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THE USE OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS 197
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LIFE HISTORIES 199 Box 8.2 Atypolog
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 201 Documentar
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 203 What are
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9 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sect
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SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 207
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PLANNING A SURVEY 209 structured or
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
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EVENT HISTORY ANALYSIS 225 may be p
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 227 packages
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 229 instruc
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 231 Box 10.1
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 237 Witte et
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INTERNET-BASED EXPERIMENTS 239 requ
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INTERNET-BASED INTERVIEWS 241 ‘ne
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SEARCHING FOR RESEARCH MATERIALS ON
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 245 autho
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 247 computer s
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 249 On the oth
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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 25
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11 Case studies What is a case stud
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 255 (providing
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 257 argue that
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EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF CASE STUDY 259
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PLANNING A CASE STUDY 261 accounts
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CONCLUSION 263 In the narrativ
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CO-RELATIONAL AND CRITERION GROUPS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EX POST FACTO RE
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DESIGNING AN EX POST FACTO INVESTIG
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PROCEDURES IN EX POST FACTO RESEARC
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INTRODUCTION 273 Box 13.1 Independe
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 275 motor
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 277 2 Sub
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 279 textb
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 281 Facto
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A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: THE NO
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PROCEDURES IN CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT
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EXAMPLES FROM EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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14 Action research Introduction Act
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL PRAXIS
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 305
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SOME PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL MATT
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CONCLUSION 313 3 Actionresearchreso
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15 Questionnaires Introduction The
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APPROACHING THE PLANNING OF A QUEST
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 321 If
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 323 de
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 325 Ra
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 327 Ve
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 329 I
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 331 Fu
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ASKING SENSITIVE QUESTIONS 333 and
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AVOIDING PITFALLS IN QUESTION WRITI
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QUESTIONNAIRES CONTAINING FEW VERBA
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COVERING LETTERS OR SHEETS AND FOLL
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PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 341 Nove
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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUESTIO
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ADMINISTERING QUESTIONNAIRES 345 is
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PROCESSING QUESTIONNAIRE DATA 347 B
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16 Interviews Introduction The use
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PURPOSES OF THE INTERVIEW 351 appli
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 353 closed quant
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 355 One can clus
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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GROUP INTERVIEWING 373 an intro
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INTERVIEWING CHILDREN 375 taking pl
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THE NON-DIRECTIVE INTERVIEW AND THE
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 379 By mean
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 381 questi
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERVIEWING 383
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 389 completeness
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ACCOUNT GATHERING IN EDUCATIONAL RE
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STRENGTHS OF THE ETHOGENIC APPROACH
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A NOTE ON STORIES 395 instruments t
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INTRODUCTION 397 the physical s
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 399 Box 18.1
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 401 Box 18.2
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 403 or event
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 409 Box 18.3
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SOME CAUTIONARY COMMENTS 411 ob
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CONCLUSION 413 the data mean. This
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NORM-REFERENCED, CRITERION-REFERENC
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COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED TESTS AND RES
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 419 achieveme
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 421 Select the
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 423 where A = t
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 425 true/fal
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 427 short-answe
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 429 demonstrate
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 431 (e.g. to as
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COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING 433 H
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20 Personal constructs Introduction
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ALLOTTING ELEMENTS TO CONSTRUCTS 43
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 439 inv
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 441 Box
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SOME EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF REPERTO
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GRID TECHNIQUE AND AUDIO/VIDEO LESS
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FOCUSED GRIDS, NON-VERBAL GRIDS, EX
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INTRODUCTION 449 Box 21.1 Dimension
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ROLE-PLAYING VERSUS DECEPTION: THE
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THE USES OF ROLE-PLAYING 453 of
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ROLE-PLAYING IN AN EDUCATIONAL SETT
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EVALUATING ROLE-PLAYING AND OTHER S
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22 Approaches to qualitative data a
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TABULATING DATA 463 data set reprod
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TABULATING DATA 465 Box 22.4 Studen
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FIVE WAYS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENT
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS FOR ANALYSING
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23 Content analysis and grounded th
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 477
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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GROUNDED THEORY 491 data, thereby c
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GROUNDED THEORY 493 fragments are t
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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24 Quantitative data analysis Intro
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DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATIST
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DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 515 alongt
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 517 hands
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HYPOTHESIS TESTING 519 selection fr
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EFFECT SIZE 521 differential measur
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EFFECT SIZE 523 Box 24.17 The Leven
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THE CHI-SQUARE TEST 525 The Effect
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DEGREES OF FREEDOM 527 Box 24.22 A2
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 529 Box 24.23
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 531 found and
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 533 Box 24.26
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 535 Many usef
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 537 we know or
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 539 Box 24.32 S
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 541 Box 24.35 S
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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25 Multidimensional measurement and
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 561 Box 25.1 Rank o
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 563 Box 25.3 The st
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 565 Box 25.5 Ascree
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 567 Box 25.7 The ro
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 569 The school
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 571 sco
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 573 Box
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 575 Box
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EXAMPLES OF STUDIES USING MULTIDIME
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTILEVEL MODELLING 583 Degrees of
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CLUSTER ANALYSIS 585 Box 25.22 Clus
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→ → → → HOW MANY SAMPLES 58
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HOW MANY SAMPLES 589 Box 26.4 Choos
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ASSUMPTIONS OF TESTS 591 Box 26.5 c
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Notes 1 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY - SET
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NOTES 595 Gender and Careers. Lewes
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NOTES 597 is widespread, indeed the
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Bibliography Acker, S. (1989) Teach
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 601 Bannister, D. and
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 603 Brenner, M., Brown
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 605 Cohen, L. and Holl
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 607 or case-based Euro
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 609 Fendler, L. (1999)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 611 the Powerful in Ed
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 613 Hanna, G. S. (1993
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 615 Jones, S. (1987) T
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 617 IL: Bureau of Econ
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 619 McNiff, J., Lomax,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 621 Morrison, K. R. B.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 623 Patton, M. Q. (198
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 625 Muliak and J. H. S
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 627 Smith, M. L. and G
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 629 Thorne, B. (1994)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 631 Whyte, W. F. (1993
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INDEX Absolutism 51, 61-2 Access 51
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INDEX 635 face validity see validit
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INDEX 637 qualitative research 19-2
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