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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 251 Geographical Information Systems While not exactly a simulation, the computerbased Geographical Information Systems are becoming increasingly used in educational research, for example in discussing patterns of student recruitment and school choice. Educational policy frequently has geographical implications and dimensions, e.g. catchment areas, school closures, open enrolment and school choice, the distribution of resources and financial expenditure, the distribution of assessment scores and examination results. Geographical Information Systems is a computer-based system for capturing, storing, validating, analysing and displaying spatial data, both large scale and small scale, integrating several types of data from different sources (Worrall 1990; Parsons et al. 1996; Gorard et al. 2002). This is useful for teasing out the implications and outcomes of policy initiatives, for example: ‘What is the effect of parental choice on school catchments’; ‘What is the spread of examination scores in a particular region’; ‘How effective is the provision of secondary schools for a given population’; ‘How can a transport system be made more effective for taking students to and from school’; ‘What is the evidence for the creation of ‘magnet’ and ‘sink’ schools in a particular city’. Examples of the data presented here are given in Boxes 10.2 and 10.3. Clearly the political sensitivity and significance of these kinds of data are immense, indicating how research can inform policy-making and its effects very directly. Parsons et al. (1996)provide a straightforward, fully referenced introduction to this field of research in education, and they present case studies of catchment areas and examination performance, the redistribution of school catchments, and the pattern of movements in catchments. Readers wishing to research Geographical Information Systems (GIS) on the Internet can access several sites by keying in ‘education research Geographical Information Systems’ on a search engine for the Internet or by visiting the following web sites: Chapter 10 Box 10.2 Geographical Information Systems in secondary schools School A Scale 0 300m School B Notes Pupils at school A Pupils at schools A and B Pupils at school B Catchment boundary Source: Parsons et al.1996
252 INTERNET-BASED <strong>RESEARCH</strong> AND COMPUTER USAGE Box 10.3 Location of home postcodes using Geographical Information Systems School A Scale 0 300m School B Notes Pupils at school A Pupils at school B Pupils at schools A and B Catchment boundary Line defining 100m buffer Source: Parsons et al.1996 http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/giswww.html (a GIS World Wide Web resource list) http://www.tec.army.mil/gis/ (includes Education links) http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gis gateway.html (GIS resources from the US census bureau) http://www.geo.uni-bonn.de/members/haack/gisinfo. html (European link server) http://unr.edu/homepage/daved/gislinks.html (GIS resources over the Internet)
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Research Methods in Education This
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First published 2007 by Routledge 2
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Contents List of boxes xiii Acknowl
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CONTENTS ix Searching for research
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CONTENTS xi Part 5 Data analysis 22
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xiv BOXES 13.1 Independent and depe
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xvi BOXES 24.54 Frequencies and per
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xviii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Springer,for
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2 INTRODUCTION Package for the Soci
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1 The nature of inquiry - Setting t
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TWO CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY 7
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POSITIVISM 9 Box 1.1 The subjective
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 15 an educate
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CRITICISMS OF POSITIVISM AND THE SC
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ALTERNATIVES TO POSITIVISTIC SOCIAL
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A QUESTION OF TERMINOLOGY: THE NORM
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PHENOMENOLOGY, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND
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CRITICISMS OF THE NATURALISTIC AND
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CRITICAL EDUCAT
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CRITICISMS OF APPROACHES FROM CRITI
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CURRICULUM RESE
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THE EMERGING PARADIGM OF COMPLEXITY
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 35 deconstructin
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 37 respecting d
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 39 Research must
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 41 particul
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 43 The age
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 45 to exten
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METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 47 too easi
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Part Two Planning educational resea
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52 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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3 Planning educational research Int
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80 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH t
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82 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH de
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84 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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96 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Or
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98 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Pa
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4 Sampling Introduction The quality
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102 SAMPLING sample of 200 might be
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104 SAMPLING Box 4.1 Sample size, c
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106 SAMPLING would be insufficient
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108 SAMPLING The formula assumes th
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110 SAMPLING school governors, scho
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112 SAMPLING terms of sex, a random
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114 SAMPLING the required sample si
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116 SAMPLING Snowball sampling In s
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118 SAMPLING the kind of sample (d
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120 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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134 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY It is
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136 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY using
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138 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY includ
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140 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY leadin
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142 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY social
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144 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY this i
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146 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY prese
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148 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY by ass
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150 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validi
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152 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY typica
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154 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY people
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156 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
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158 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY sensit
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160 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY certif
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162 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY how m
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164 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY operat
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7 Naturalistic and ethnographic res
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ELEMENTS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY 16
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 171
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CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 187 Relatio
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SOME PROBLEMS WITH ETHNOGRAPHIC AND
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8 Historical and documentary resear
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DATA COLLECTION 193 One can see fro
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WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 195 Ext
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THE USE OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS 197
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LIFE HISTORIES 199 Box 8.2 Atypolog
Page 220 and 221: DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 201 Documentar
Page 222 and 223: DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 203 What are
Page 224 and 225: 9 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sect
Page 226 and 227: SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 207
Page 228 and 229: PLANNING A SURVEY 209 structured or
Page 230 and 231: LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
Page 232 and 233: LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
Page 234 and 235: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
Page 236 and 237: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
Page 238 and 239: POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
Page 244 and 245: EVENT HISTORY ANALYSIS 225 may be p
Page 246 and 247: INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 227 packages
Page 248 and 249: INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 229 instruc
Page 250 and 251: INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 231 Box 10.1
Page 256 and 257: INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 237 Witte et
Page 258 and 259: INTERNET-BASED EXPERIMENTS 239 requ
Page 260 and 261: INTERNET-BASED INTERVIEWS 241 ‘ne
Page 262 and 263: SEARCHING FOR RESEARCH MATERIALS ON
Page 264 and 265: COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 245 autho
Page 266 and 267: COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 247 computer s
Page 268 and 269: COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 249 On the oth
Page 272 and 273: 11 Case studies What is a case stud
Page 274 and 275: WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 255 (providing
Page 276 and 277: WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 257 argue that
Page 278 and 279: EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF CASE STUDY 259
Page 280 and 281: PLANNING A CASE STUDY 261 accounts
Page 282 and 283: CONCLUSION 263 In the narrativ
Page 284 and 285: CO-RELATIONAL AND CRITERION GROUPS
Page 286 and 287: CHARACTERISTICS OF EX POST FACTO RE
Page 288 and 289: DESIGNING AN EX POST FACTO INVESTIG
Page 290 and 291: PROCEDURES IN EX POST FACTO RESEARC
Page 292 and 293: INTRODUCTION 273 Box 13.1 Independe
Page 294 and 295: TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 275 motor
Page 296 and 297: TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 277 2 Sub
Page 298 and 299: TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 279 textb
Page 300 and 301: TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 281 Facto
Page 302 and 303: A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: THE NO
Page 304 and 305: PROCEDURES IN CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT
Page 306 and 307: EXAMPLES FROM EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Page 308 and 309: EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Page 316 and 317: 14 Action research Introduction Act
Page 318 and 319: PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL PRAXIS
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 305
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SOME PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL MATT
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CONCLUSION 313 3 Actionresearchreso
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15 Questionnaires Introduction The
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APPROACHING THE PLANNING OF A QUEST
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 321 If
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 323 de
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 325 Ra
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 327 Ve
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 329 I
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 331 Fu
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ASKING SENSITIVE QUESTIONS 333 and
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AVOIDING PITFALLS IN QUESTION WRITI
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QUESTIONNAIRES CONTAINING FEW VERBA
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COVERING LETTERS OR SHEETS AND FOLL
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PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 341 Nove
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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUESTIO
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ADMINISTERING QUESTIONNAIRES 345 is
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PROCESSING QUESTIONNAIRE DATA 347 B
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16 Interviews Introduction The use
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PURPOSES OF THE INTERVIEW 351 appli
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 353 closed quant
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 355 One can clus
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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GROUP INTERVIEWING 373 an intro
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INTERVIEWING CHILDREN 375 taking pl
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THE NON-DIRECTIVE INTERVIEW AND THE
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 379 By mean
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 381 questi
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERVIEWING 383
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 389 completeness
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ACCOUNT GATHERING IN EDUCATIONAL RE
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STRENGTHS OF THE ETHOGENIC APPROACH
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A NOTE ON STORIES 395 instruments t
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INTRODUCTION 397 the physical s
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 399 Box 18.1
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 401 Box 18.2
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 403 or event
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 409 Box 18.3
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SOME CAUTIONARY COMMENTS 411 ob
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CONCLUSION 413 the data mean. This
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NORM-REFERENCED, CRITERION-REFERENC
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COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED TESTS AND RES
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 419 achieveme
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 421 Select the
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 423 where A = t
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 425 true/fal
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 427 short-answe
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 429 demonstrate
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 431 (e.g. to as
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COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING 433 H
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20 Personal constructs Introduction
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ALLOTTING ELEMENTS TO CONSTRUCTS 43
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 439 inv
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 441 Box
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SOME EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF REPERTO
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GRID TECHNIQUE AND AUDIO/VIDEO LESS
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FOCUSED GRIDS, NON-VERBAL GRIDS, EX
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INTRODUCTION 449 Box 21.1 Dimension
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ROLE-PLAYING VERSUS DECEPTION: THE
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THE USES OF ROLE-PLAYING 453 of
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ROLE-PLAYING IN AN EDUCATIONAL SETT
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EVALUATING ROLE-PLAYING AND OTHER S
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22 Approaches to qualitative data a
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TABULATING DATA 463 data set reprod
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TABULATING DATA 465 Box 22.4 Studen
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FIVE WAYS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENT
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS FOR ANALYSING
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23 Content analysis and grounded th
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 477
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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GROUNDED THEORY 491 data, thereby c
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GROUNDED THEORY 493 fragments are t
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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24 Quantitative data analysis Intro
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DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATIST
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DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 515 alongt
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 517 hands
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HYPOTHESIS TESTING 519 selection fr
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EFFECT SIZE 521 differential measur
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EFFECT SIZE 523 Box 24.17 The Leven
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THE CHI-SQUARE TEST 525 The Effect
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DEGREES OF FREEDOM 527 Box 24.22 A2
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 529 Box 24.23
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 531 found and
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 533 Box 24.26
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 535 Many usef
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 537 we know or
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 539 Box 24.32 S
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 541 Box 24.35 S
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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25 Multidimensional measurement and
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 561 Box 25.1 Rank o
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 563 Box 25.3 The st
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 565 Box 25.5 Ascree
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 567 Box 25.7 The ro
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 569 The school
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 571 sco
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 573 Box
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 575 Box
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EXAMPLES OF STUDIES USING MULTIDIME
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTILEVEL MODELLING 583 Degrees of
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CLUSTER ANALYSIS 585 Box 25.22 Clus
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→ → → → HOW MANY SAMPLES 58
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HOW MANY SAMPLES 589 Box 26.4 Choos
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ASSUMPTIONS OF TESTS 591 Box 26.5 c
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Notes 1 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY - SET
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NOTES 595 Gender and Careers. Lewes
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NOTES 597 is widespread, indeed the
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Bibliography Acker, S. (1989) Teach
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 601 Bannister, D. and
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 603 Brenner, M., Brown
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 605 Cohen, L. and Holl
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 607 or case-based Euro
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 609 Fendler, L. (1999)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 611 the Powerful in Ed
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 613 Hanna, G. S. (1993
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 615 Jones, S. (1987) T
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 617 IL: Bureau of Econ
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 619 McNiff, J., Lomax,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 621 Morrison, K. R. B.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 623 Patton, M. Q. (198
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 625 Muliak and J. H. S
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 627 Smith, M. L. and G
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 629 Thorne, B. (1994)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 631 Whyte, W. F. (1993
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INDEX Absolutism 51, 61-2 Access 51
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INDEX 635 face validity see validit
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INDEX 637 qualitative research 19-2
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