RESEARCH METHOD COHEN ok

ACCESS AND ACCEPTANCE 57
of the research will be referred to the top of the
organization sooner or later, and that there is a
much better chance for a favourable decision if
leaders are consulted at the outset. It may also be
the case that heads will be more open-minded than
those lower down, who, because of their insecurity,
may be less cooperative.
Festinger and Katz (1996) also warn against
using the easiest entrances into the organization
when seeking permission. Researchers may
perhaps seek to come in as allies of individuals
or groups who have a special interest to exploit
and who see research as a means to their ends,
rather than entering the situation in the common
interests of all parties, with findings equally
available to all groups and persons (Festinger and
Katz 1966). Investigators should thus seek as broad
abasisfortheirsupportaspossible.Otherpotential
problems may be circumvented by making use
of accepted channels of communication in the
institution or organization. Festinger and Katz
(1966) caution that if information is limited to
asinglechannelthenthestudyrisksbecoming
identified with the interests that are associated
with that channel.
Following contact, there will be a negotiation
process. At this point researchers will give as
much information about the aims, nature and
procedures of the research as is appropriate. This is
very important: information that may prejudice
the results of the investigation may have to
be withheld. Aronson and Carlsmith (1969), for
instance, note that one cannot imagine researchers
who are studying the effects of group pressure
on conformity announcing their intentions in
advance. On the other hand, researchers may find
themselves on dangerous ground if they go to the
extreme of maintaining a ‘conspiracy of silence’,
because, as Festinger and Katz note, such a stance is
hard to keep up if the research is extensive and lasts
over several days or weeks, and trying to preserve
secrecy might lead to an increase in the spread and
wildness of rumours (Festinger and Katz 1966).
If researchers do not want their potential hosts
and/or subjects to know too much about specific
hypotheses and objectives, then a simple way out is
to present an explicit statement at a fairly general
Box 2.4
Conditions and guarantees proffered for a schoolbased
research project
1 All participants must be given the chance to remain
anonymous.
2 All data must be given strict confidentiality.
3 Interviewees should have the chance to verify
statements at the stage of drafting the report
(respondent validation).
4 Participants should be given a copy of the final
report.
5 Permission for publication must be gained from the
participants.
6 If possible, the research report should be of benefit
to the school and participants.
Source: adapted from Bell 1991
level with one or two examples of items that
are not crucial to the study as a whole. As most
research entails some risks, especially where field
studies are concerned, and as the presence of an
observer scrutinizing various aspects of community
or school life may not be relished by all in the
group, investigators must at all times manifest a
sensitive appreciation of their hosts’ and subjects’
position and reassure anyone who feels threatened
by the work. Such reassurance could take the form
of a statement of conditions and guarantees given
by researchers at this negotiation stage. By way of
illustration, Box 2.4 contains conditions laid down
for the Open University students’ school-based
research project.
Ethical considerations pervade the whole process
of research; these will be no more so than at
the stage of access and acceptance, where appropriateness
of topic, design, methods, guarantees of
confidentiality, analysis and dissemination of findings
must be negotiated with relative openness,
sensitivity, honesty, accuracy and scientific impartiality.
There can be no rigid rules in this
context. It will be a case of formulating and
abiding by one’s own situated ethics. These will
determine what is acceptable and what is not acceptable.
As Hitchcock and Hughes (1995) say in
this regard:
Chapter 2