RESEARCH METHOD COHEN ok

56 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
is taking place (an insider), though in the case
of the latter, it is generally unwise to take cooperation
for granted. Where research procedures
are extensive and complicated, however, or where
the design is developmental or longitudinal, or
where researchers are not normally based in the
target community, the problems of access are more
involved and require greater preparation. Box 2.3
gives a flavour of the kinds of accessibility problems
that can be experienced (Foster 1989).
Having identified the official and significant
figures whose permission must be sought, and
before actually meeting them, researchers will
need to clarify in their own minds the precise
nature and scope of their research. It is desirable
that they have a total picture of what it all entails,
even if the overall scheme is a provisional one
(though we have to bear in mind that this may
cause difficulties later). In this respect researchers
could, for instance, identify the aims of the
research; its practical applications, if any, the
design, methods and procedures to be used, the
nature and size of samples or groups, what tests are
to be administered and how, what activities are to
Box 2.3
Close encounters of a researcher kind
My first entry into a staffroom at the college was the
occasion of some shuffling and shifting of books and
chairs so that I could be given a comfortable seat while
the tutor talked to me from a standing position. As time
progressed my presence was almost taken for granted
and later, when events threatened the security of the
tutors, I was ignored. No one enquired as to whether
they could assist me and my own enquiries were met
with cursory answers and confused looks, followed
by the immediate disappearance of the individuals
concerned, bearing a pile of papers. I learned not
to make too many enquiries. Unfortunately, when
individuals feel insecure, when their world is threatened
with change that is beyond their control, they are likely
to respond in an unpredictable manner to persons
within their midst whose role is unclear, and the role
of the researcher is rarely understood by those not
engaged in research.
Source:Foster1989:194
be observed, which subjects are to be interviewed,
observational needs, the time involved, the degree
of disruption envisaged; arrangements to guarantee
confidentiality with respect to data (if this is
necessary), the role of feedback and how findings
can best be disseminated, the overall timetable
within which the research is to be encompassed,
and finally, whether assistance will be required
in the organization and administration of the
research.
By such planning and foresight, both researchers
and institutions will have a good idea of the
demands likely to be made on both subjects (be
they children or teachers) and organizations. It is
also a good opportunity to anticipate and resolve
likely problems, especially those of a practical kind.
A long, complicated questionnaire, for example,
may place undue demands on the comprehension
skills and attention spans of a particular class
of 13 year olds, or a relatively inexperienced
teacher could feel threatened by sustained research
scrutiny. Once this kind of information has been
sorted out and clarified, researchers will be in a
stronger position to discuss their proposed plans
in an informed, open and frank manner (though
not necessarily too open, as we shall see) and may
thereby more readily gain permission, acceptance
and support. It must be remembered that hosts
will have perceptions of researchers and their
intentions and that these need to be positive.
Researchers can best influence such perceptions by
presenting themselves as competent, trustworthy
and accommodating.
Once this preliminary information has been
collected, researchers are duly prepared for
the next stage: making actual contact in
person, perhaps after an introductory letter, with
appropriate people in the organization with a view
to negotiating access. If the research is universitybased,
they will have the support of their university
and supervisor. Festinger and Katz (1966) consider
that there is real economy in going to the very
top of the organization or system in question to
obtain assent and cooperation. This is particularly
so where the structure is clearly hierarchical and
where lower levels are always dependent on their
superiors. They consider it likely that the nature