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PLANNING A SURVEY 209 structured or semi-structured interviews, selfcompletion or postal questionnaires, telephone interviews, Internet surveys, standardized tests of attainment or performance, and attitude scales. Typically, too, surveys proceed through welldefined stages, though not every stage outlined in Box 9.1 is required for the successful completion of a survey (see http://www.routledge.com/textbo<strong>ok</strong>s/ 9780415368780 – Chapter 9, file 9.2.ppt). The process moves from the general to the specific. A general research topic is br<strong>ok</strong>en down into complementary issues and questions, and, for each component, questions are set. As will be discussed in questionnaires (Chapter 15), it is important, in the interests of reliability and validity, to have several items or questions for each component issue, as this does justice to the allround nature of the topic. Sapsford (1999: 34–40) suggests that there are four main considerations in planning a survey: 3 Formulate research questions or hypotheses (if appropriate): the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. 4 Decidethe issues on which to focus. 5 Decide the information that is needed to address the issues. 6 Decidethe sampling required. 7 Decide the instrumentation and the metrics required. 8 Generate thedata collection instruments. 9 Decide how the data will be collected (e.g. postal survey, interviews). 10 Pilot the instruments and refine them. 11 Train the interviewers (if appropriate). 12 Collect the data. 13 Analyse the data. 14 Report the results. Rosier (1997) suggests that the planning of a survey will need to include clarification of: Chapter 9 Problem definition: deciding what kinds and contents of answers are required; what hypotheses there are to be tested; what variables there are to explore Sample selection: what is the target population; how can access and representativeness be assured; what other samples will need to be drawn for the purpose of comparison Design of measurements: what will be measured, and how (i.e. what metrics will be used – see Chapter 15 on questionnaires); what variables will be required; how reliability and validity will be assured Concern for participants: protection of confidentiality and anonymity; avoidance of pain to the respondents; avoiding harm to those who might be affected by the results; avoiding over-intrusive questions; avoiding coercion; informed consent (see Chapter 2 on ethics). Afourteen-stageprocessofplanningasurvey can be considered: 1 Definethe objectives. 2 Decide the kind of survey required (e.g. longitudinal, cross-section, trend study, cohort study). The research questions to which answers need to be provided. The conceptual framework of the survey, specifying in precise terms the concepts that will be used and explored. Operationalizing the research questions (e.g. into hypotheses). The instruments to be used for data collection, e.g. to chart or measure background characteristics of the sample (often nominal data), academic achievements (e.g. examination results, degrees awarded), attitudes and opinions (often using ordinal data from rating scales) and behaviour (using observational techniques). Sampling strategies and subgroups within the sample (unless the whole population is being surveyed, e.g. through census returns or nationally aggregated test scores etc.). Pre-piloting the survey. Piloting the survey. Data collection practicalities and conduct (e.g. permissions, funding, ethical considerations, response rates). Data preparation (e.g. coding, data entry for computer analysis, checking and verification).
210 SURVEYS AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES Box 9.1 Stages in the planning of a survey Define objectives Decide information needed Review existing information on topic and area Decide: preliminary tabulations, analysis programme and sample Examine resources of staff, time, finance Decide sample Choose survey method Structure and wording of questions Design questionnaire Choose data processing method Pilot survey Brief interviews Amend questionnaire and sample MAIN SURVEY Send explanatory letter for postal questionnaire Send reminders Edit and code, decide final tabulations Tabulate and analyse Write up report Source: adapted from Davidson 1970
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Research Methods in Education This
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First published 2007 by Routledge 2
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Contents List of boxes xiii Acknowl
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CONTENTS ix Searching for research
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CONTENTS xi Part 5 Data analysis 22
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xiv BOXES 13.1 Independent and depe
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xvi BOXES 24.54 Frequencies and per
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xviii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Springer,for
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2 INTRODUCTION Package for the Soci
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1 The nature of inquiry - Setting t
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TWO CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY 7
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POSITIVISM 9 Box 1.1 The subjective
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 15 an educate
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CRITICISMS OF POSITIVISM AND THE SC
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ALTERNATIVES TO POSITIVISTIC SOCIAL
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A QUESTION OF TERMINOLOGY: THE NORM
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PHENOMENOLOGY, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND
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CRITICISMS OF THE NATURALISTIC AND
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CRITICAL EDUCAT
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CRITICISMS OF APPROACHES FROM CRITI
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CURRICULUM RESE
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THE EMERGING PARADIGM OF COMPLEXITY
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 35 deconstructin
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 37 respecting d
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 39 Research must
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 41 particul
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 43 The age
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 45 to exten
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METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 47 too easi
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Part Two Planning educational resea
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52 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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3 Planning educational research Int
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80 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH t
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82 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH de
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84 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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96 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Or
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98 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Pa
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4 Sampling Introduction The quality
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102 SAMPLING sample of 200 might be
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104 SAMPLING Box 4.1 Sample size, c
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106 SAMPLING would be insufficient
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108 SAMPLING The formula assumes th
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110 SAMPLING school governors, scho
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112 SAMPLING terms of sex, a random
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114 SAMPLING the required sample si
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116 SAMPLING Snowball sampling In s
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118 SAMPLING the kind of sample (d
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120 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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134 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY It is
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136 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY using
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138 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY includ
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140 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY leadin
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142 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY social
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144 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY this i
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146 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY prese
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148 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY by ass
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150 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validi
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152 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY typica
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154 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY people
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156 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
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Page 179 and 180: 160 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY certif
Page 181 and 182: 162 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY how m
Page 183 and 184: 164 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY operat
Page 186 and 187: 7 Naturalistic and ethnographic res
Page 188 and 189: ELEMENTS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY 16
Page 190 and 191: PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 171
Page 206 and 207: CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 187 Relatio
Page 208 and 209: SOME PROBLEMS WITH ETHNOGRAPHIC AND
Page 210 and 211: 8 Historical and documentary resear
Page 212 and 213: DATA COLLECTION 193 One can see fro
Page 214 and 215: WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 195 Ext
Page 216 and 217: THE USE OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS 197
Page 218 and 219: LIFE HISTORIES 199 Box 8.2 Atypolog
Page 220 and 221: DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 201 Documentar
Page 222 and 223: DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 203 What are
Page 224 and 225: 9 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sect
Page 226 and 227: SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 207
Page 230 and 231: LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
Page 232 and 233: LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
Page 234 and 235: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
Page 236 and 237: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
Page 238 and 239: POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
Page 244 and 245: EVENT HISTORY ANALYSIS 225 may be p
Page 246 and 247: INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 227 packages
Page 248 and 249: INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 229 instruc
Page 250 and 251: INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 231 Box 10.1
Page 256 and 257: INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 237 Witte et
Page 258 and 259: INTERNET-BASED EXPERIMENTS 239 requ
Page 260 and 261: INTERNET-BASED INTERVIEWS 241 ‘ne
Page 262 and 263: SEARCHING FOR RESEARCH MATERIALS ON
Page 264 and 265: COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 245 autho
Page 266 and 267: COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 247 computer s
Page 268 and 269: COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 249 On the oth
Page 270 and 271: GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 25
Page 272 and 273: 11 Case studies What is a case stud
Page 274 and 275: WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 255 (providing
Page 276 and 277: WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 257 argue that
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EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF CASE STUDY 259
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PLANNING A CASE STUDY 261 accounts
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CONCLUSION 263 In the narrativ
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CO-RELATIONAL AND CRITERION GROUPS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EX POST FACTO RE
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DESIGNING AN EX POST FACTO INVESTIG
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PROCEDURES IN EX POST FACTO RESEARC
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INTRODUCTION 273 Box 13.1 Independe
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 275 motor
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 277 2 Sub
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 279 textb
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 281 Facto
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A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: THE NO
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PROCEDURES IN CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT
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EXAMPLES FROM EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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14 Action research Introduction Act
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL PRAXIS
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 305
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SOME PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL MATT
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CONCLUSION 313 3 Actionresearchreso
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15 Questionnaires Introduction The
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APPROACHING THE PLANNING OF A QUEST
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 321 If
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 323 de
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 325 Ra
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 327 Ve
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 329 I
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 331 Fu
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ASKING SENSITIVE QUESTIONS 333 and
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AVOIDING PITFALLS IN QUESTION WRITI
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QUESTIONNAIRES CONTAINING FEW VERBA
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COVERING LETTERS OR SHEETS AND FOLL
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PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 341 Nove
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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUESTIO
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ADMINISTERING QUESTIONNAIRES 345 is
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PROCESSING QUESTIONNAIRE DATA 347 B
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16 Interviews Introduction The use
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PURPOSES OF THE INTERVIEW 351 appli
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 353 closed quant
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 355 One can clus
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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GROUP INTERVIEWING 373 an intro
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INTERVIEWING CHILDREN 375 taking pl
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THE NON-DIRECTIVE INTERVIEW AND THE
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 379 By mean
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 381 questi
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERVIEWING 383
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 389 completeness
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ACCOUNT GATHERING IN EDUCATIONAL RE
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STRENGTHS OF THE ETHOGENIC APPROACH
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A NOTE ON STORIES 395 instruments t
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INTRODUCTION 397 the physical s
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 399 Box 18.1
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 401 Box 18.2
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 403 or event
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 409 Box 18.3
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SOME CAUTIONARY COMMENTS 411 ob
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CONCLUSION 413 the data mean. This
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NORM-REFERENCED, CRITERION-REFERENC
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COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED TESTS AND RES
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 419 achieveme
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 421 Select the
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 423 where A = t
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 425 true/fal
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 427 short-answe
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 429 demonstrate
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 431 (e.g. to as
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COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING 433 H
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20 Personal constructs Introduction
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ALLOTTING ELEMENTS TO CONSTRUCTS 43
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 439 inv
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 441 Box
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SOME EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF REPERTO
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GRID TECHNIQUE AND AUDIO/VIDEO LESS
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FOCUSED GRIDS, NON-VERBAL GRIDS, EX
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INTRODUCTION 449 Box 21.1 Dimension
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ROLE-PLAYING VERSUS DECEPTION: THE
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THE USES OF ROLE-PLAYING 453 of
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ROLE-PLAYING IN AN EDUCATIONAL SETT
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EVALUATING ROLE-PLAYING AND OTHER S
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22 Approaches to qualitative data a
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TABULATING DATA 463 data set reprod
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TABULATING DATA 465 Box 22.4 Studen
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FIVE WAYS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENT
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS FOR ANALYSING
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23 Content analysis and grounded th
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 477
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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GROUNDED THEORY 491 data, thereby c
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GROUNDED THEORY 493 fragments are t
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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24 Quantitative data analysis Intro
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DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATIST
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DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 515 alongt
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 517 hands
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HYPOTHESIS TESTING 519 selection fr
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EFFECT SIZE 521 differential measur
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EFFECT SIZE 523 Box 24.17 The Leven
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THE CHI-SQUARE TEST 525 The Effect
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DEGREES OF FREEDOM 527 Box 24.22 A2
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 529 Box 24.23
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 531 found and
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 533 Box 24.26
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 535 Many usef
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 537 we know or
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 539 Box 24.32 S
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 541 Box 24.35 S
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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25 Multidimensional measurement and
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 561 Box 25.1 Rank o
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 563 Box 25.3 The st
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 565 Box 25.5 Ascree
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 567 Box 25.7 The ro
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 569 The school
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 571 sco
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 573 Box
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 575 Box
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EXAMPLES OF STUDIES USING MULTIDIME
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTILEVEL MODELLING 583 Degrees of
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CLUSTER ANALYSIS 585 Box 25.22 Clus
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→ → → → HOW MANY SAMPLES 58
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HOW MANY SAMPLES 589 Box 26.4 Choos
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ASSUMPTIONS OF TESTS 591 Box 26.5 c
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Notes 1 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY - SET
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NOTES 595 Gender and Careers. Lewes
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NOTES 597 is widespread, indeed the
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Bibliography Acker, S. (1989) Teach
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 601 Bannister, D. and
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 603 Brenner, M., Brown
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 605 Cohen, L. and Holl
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 607 or case-based Euro
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 609 Fendler, L. (1999)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 611 the Powerful in Ed
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 613 Hanna, G. S. (1993
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 615 Jones, S. (1987) T
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 617 IL: Bureau of Econ
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 619 McNiff, J., Lomax,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 621 Morrison, K. R. B.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 623 Patton, M. Q. (198
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 625 Muliak and J. H. S
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 627 Smith, M. L. and G
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 629 Thorne, B. (1994)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 631 Whyte, W. F. (1993
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INDEX Absolutism 51, 61-2 Access 51
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INDEX 635 face validity see validit
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INDEX 637 qualitative research 19-2
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