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The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls: The ... - josephprestonkirk

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RICHARD A. HORSLEY 41<br />

popular movement from <strong>the</strong> guerrilla warfare that, after its remarkable<br />

success, quickly shifted into <strong>the</strong> rise of <strong>the</strong> Hasmoneans as <strong>the</strong> new high<br />

priestly regime that gradually consolidated its power in Judea <strong>and</strong><br />

exp<strong>and</strong>ed its rule in Palestine.<br />

Both <strong>the</strong> Qumran/Essenes movement <strong>and</strong> Jesus-<strong>and</strong>-movement originated<br />

as responses to <strong>the</strong> impact of empire. 8 Once imperial domination<br />

became direct, particularly with Seleucid military attacks <strong>and</strong> Roman<br />

conquest <strong>and</strong> reconquest, scribal-priestly circles dedicated to <strong>the</strong> traditional<br />

Israelite way of life, such as those who formed <strong>the</strong> Qumran community,<br />

<strong>and</strong> “peasants” rooted in Israelite traditions, such as those who<br />

formed <strong>the</strong> Jesus movement(s), sought (biblically) unprecedented ways of<br />

symbolizing <strong>the</strong> suffering <strong>and</strong> evil <strong>the</strong>y were experiencing <strong>and</strong> new initiatives<br />

by God to deliver <strong>the</strong>m from oppressive rule. Conquest by alien<br />

empire <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own suffering could not possibly be due only to <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

own sin, <strong>the</strong>ir own failure to keep Mosaic comm<strong>and</strong>ments. <strong>The</strong> only satisfactory<br />

explanation was that superhuman demonic forces had gained<br />

virtual control of <strong>the</strong> historical situation <strong>and</strong>/or of <strong>the</strong>ir own particular<br />

lives. In both <strong>the</strong> DSS <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gospel traditions of Jesus, <strong>the</strong> situation in<br />

which <strong>the</strong> authors/readers live is dominated by demons or caught up into<br />

a struggle between superhuman forces. <strong>The</strong> scribes at Qumran reflected<br />

<strong>the</strong>ologically <strong>and</strong> systematically on <strong>the</strong> historical situation. Contrary to<br />

appearances, God was still ultimately in control. Indeed, God had<br />

appointed two Spirits, <strong>the</strong> Prince of Light/Angel of Truth versus <strong>the</strong><br />

Angel of Darkness/Belial/Satan, who struggle for control of human<br />

life/Israelite society. But God has also ordained an end for Falsehood, a<br />

time when <strong>the</strong> evil Spirit <strong>and</strong> its human forces at <strong>the</strong> historical-political<br />

level (<strong>the</strong> Kittim = <strong>the</strong> Romans) will be defeated by God’s forces <strong>and</strong> people<br />

(Esp. 1QS 3–4; 1QM). <strong>The</strong> exorcism stories in Mark <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> pre-<br />

Markan <strong>and</strong> pre-Q Beelzebul discourses provide evidence of a less<br />

systematic <strong>and</strong> more ad hoc symbolization of a similar situation in which<br />

<strong>the</strong> people are caught in <strong>the</strong> struggle between divine <strong>and</strong> demonic forces. 9<br />

Although certain Judean apocalypses offer similar symbolization of<br />

<strong>the</strong> situation under imperial domination, Qumran/<strong>the</strong> Essenes <strong>and</strong> Jesus<strong>and</strong>-movement<br />

are <strong>the</strong> only two movements we know who were actively<br />

8. This subject has not been carefully explored in any depth. Some provisional<br />

analysis is available in Horsley, Jesus <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Spiral, chs. 1–2 <strong>and</strong> pp. 129–46, 184–90;<br />

Richard A. Horsley, Galilee: History, Politics, People (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press<br />

International, 1995), chs. 1, 3, <strong>and</strong> 5; <strong>and</strong> idem, Jesus <strong>and</strong> Empire.<br />

9. See fur<strong>the</strong>r, Horsley, Jesus <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Spiral, 184–90; <strong>and</strong> idem., Hearing <strong>the</strong> Whole<br />

Story: <strong>The</strong> Politics of Plot in Mark’s Gospel (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001),<br />

136–148.

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