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18 Gabriel Said Reynoldsnames and details of context and long on allusions and references. And sincetranslators have no contemporaneous or earlier Arabic literature to work with/ 1the only place to find explicit explanations of these allusions and references ismedieval Muslim literature. But this literature itself is filled with debates over theQur'iin's meaning (along with occasional confessions of complete uncertainty).Thus we arrive at the curious yet common phenomenon whereby the differencesin modem translations of the Qur'iin are often distant - and yet evident -reflections of the very same differences to be found centuries earlier amongtraditional Islamic authorities.In this light it would hardly seem correct to describe the current moment as agolden age ofQur'iinic studies. Scholars of the Qur'iin have not yet approached,let alone agreed upon, a basic understanding of the ancient meaning of the text.Thus the recent multiplication of translations of the Qur'iin seems more ironicthan a propos.Now the recourse of translators ofthe Qur'iin to medieval Islamic literatureis understandable. Their task might be compared to the translation of the OldTestament/Hebrew Bible. For their part, translators ofthe Old Testament/HebrewBible do not look to traditional literature such as Philo, Origen, the BabylonianTalmud, the Midrash Rabbah, or Martin Luther to discover the ancient meaningof the text. Instead they look to the study of Akkadian and North-West Semiticlanguages and literature, of paleography, of archaeology/epigraphy, etc. to do so.But this is only possible because of the immense archeological, epigraphical, andphilological work that has been done in the fields of Assyriology and JudaicStudies, work that allows translators to understand their text in the light of thehistorical context in which it was composed.In comparison, scholars ofthe Qur'iin still have a lot of work to do, and it is tothis work that the Notre Dame conferences on the Qur' iin are dedicated. The studiespresented here are dedicated to furthering our understanding of the Qur'iin's placein its historical context; in other words, they are meant to help students follow theQur'iin's own references to the religion, literature, a~d society of the Late AntiqueNear East. This work alone will hardly resolve all of the methodological problemsthat are evident in recent studies and translations of the Qur'iin. However, it offersfurther resources for students of the Qur'iin to discover the surprisingly profoundways in which the Qur'iin is in conversation with its context. Moreover, it offersan example of how Muslim and non-Muslim scholars alike can express theirappreciation for the Qur' iin through the critical study of its contents. ·Regarding the contributions to the present volumeNew Perspectives on the Qur 'iin: The Qur 'iin in Its Historical Context 2 is dividedinto five parts, the first of which is "Method in Qur' iinic studies." Therein FredIntroduction: the golden age ofQur'iinic studies? 19Donner, in "The historian, the believer, and the Qur'iin," argues that critical scholarshipon the Qur' iin, properly understood, can neither prove nor disprove Islamicclaims of faith. Accordingly he conclude!> that scholars have no need to shapetheir research according to Islamic apology, and no warrant to frame their researchin polemiCal terms. Thereafter Andrew Rippin examines in detail the efforts ofwestern scholars to develop a useful dictionary of the Qur'iin, and notes theimportance of etymological research to that task. Finally, Nasr Abu Zayd introducesthe reader to the principal methodologies for the interpretation ofthe Qur' iinassociated with different Islamic sciences, and to the compelling story of his lifetimeof engagement with the Qur' iin and Islamic studies. Ultimately he argues thatcritical studies of the Qur'iin's ancient meaning can help Muslims contemplate theQur'iin's meaning (or better, significance) today: "The contextual socio-culturalmeaning, that which was addressed to the first Arab recipients, should not beignored or simplified. This meaning is a .vital indication of the direction of theQur'iin's message, i.e. its significance for the future generations ofMuslims." 72The second part of the present book, "The Qur'iin and material evidence,"opens with Robert Hoyland's examination of those early Arabic inscriptions inthe Hijaz which seem to have been written by Jews, or which seem to refer to Jewsor Judaism. Thereby he illustrates how an appreciation of epigraphy can play animportant role in our study of the Qur'iin's historical context. Hoyland's chapteris complemented by that ofHani Hayajneh, who analyzes in detail Ancient SouthArabian inscriptions that anticipate Qur'anic vocabulary. Through this analysisHayajneh develops compelling new interpretations often Qur'iinic passages. Thefinal article in this section is that of Gerd Puin, who offers an exacting examinationof the Qur'iinic rasm based on the evidence of the earliest manuscripts. Puinillustrates the substantial changes that have been made to Qur'iinic orthography inthe medieval and modern period (including with the 1924 Cairo Qur'iin), andoffers critical insights into the ancient shape of the Qur'anic text. .The articles of the third part of the present volume, "Qur'iinic vocabulary," arefocused on the nature of the Qur'iin's lexicon and the meaning of poorly understoodQur'iinic terms. Shawkat Toorawa offers an exhaustive presentation andcareful categorization ofQur'iinic hapax legomena, and uses the results to cautionscholars who hasten to emend such terms to match more common vocabulary.Manfred Kropp focuses in particular on al-Ikhlii~ (Q ll2). He both proposes anemendation of this Sura and argues that a proper understanding of its developmentallows us to identify three phases in the development of th(') entire text of theQur'iin. Munther Younes, for his part, makes a compelling argument for anemended reading of al-Niizi 'iit (Q 79), in his chapter, "Angels, stars, death, thesoul, horses, bows - or women? The opening verses of Qur'iin 79." Finally,Christoph Luxenberg, applying the insights of Syriac vocabulary and grammar,offers a profoundly new reading of al-Najm (Q 53).71 On the troubles with using Jiihili poetry in this manner see Reynolds, The Qur 'an and It; BiblicalSubtext, 30-33.· 72 Abil Zayd, "Towards understanding the Qur'iin's worldview: An autobiographical reflection," thisvolume, p. 47-87.