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ITALY. 599
1824; after this period had elapsed the Doctorate of Medi­
cine could be conferred. Anyone desiring only the degree
of Doctor of Surgery studied one year Jess and occupied
himself principally with the subjects required for his future
calling. The license to practise was not conferred at the
same time as the degree, but the biennium practicum had
first to be passed and was spent in visiting the clinics and
in hospital work.
In Tuscany the custom prevailed that medical students
should attend the Universities of Siena or Pisa during four
years and then betake themselves to Florence to continue
their studies; here, in the institution connected with the,
Ospedale di S. Maria Nuova, they had an opportunity of
getting a more extended and complete education in medi­
cine. The lectures which had to be attended at the uni­
versity were accurately laid down. Examinations held at
the end of every year were the means of deciding whether
a student should be admitted to the lectures of the follow­
ing year. After the conclusion of the period of studentship
the State-examination had to be passed in Florence : it con­
sisted of an oral part on theoretical subjects and of a prac­
tical clinical part. Then followed the composition and
defence of theses, the promotion to the degree of Doctor,
and the license to practise.
Similar conditions prevailed in other Italian States.
The influence of Austria and France, which made itself
felt in many branches of the administration, was noticeable
also in the arrangements of medical study.
When the national aspirations of Italy were satisfied and
the different parts of that country were united into one
political whole, a uniform organization in medical teaching
became a possibility. It became a reality on the 16th
November, 1859, and was the first stone laid in a great
edifice of culture, the advantages of which are becoming
every day more apparent.
At present Italy possesses 17 universities maintained by
the State, and 4 supported by towns or provinces. The