Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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The actual move 275 Protection of objects 276 Damage 276 6.2.8 Environmental management for preventive conservation277 Stores and storage 277 6.3 Disaster preparation 279 6.3.1 Disaster planning 279 Prevention 279 Preparation 280 6.3.2 When a disaster occurs 281 6.3.3 After a disaster 282 Bibliography 282 7 Deterioration of wood and wooden structures 285 7.1 Deterioration of wood as material 285 7.1.1 Natural defects in wood in living trees 285 7.1.2 Artificial defects – conversion and seasoning 288 Conversion 289 Seasoning defects 289 7.1.3 Deterioration of ‘normal’ seasoned wood 290 Light 290 Heat 291 Moisture 292 Pollution 294 Fungi 294 Insects 296 Mechanical deterioration of wood 301 7.2 Deterioration of wooden structures – causes 302 7.2.1 General – dimensional response of wooden structures 302 7.2.2 Faulty construction and conservation 303 Design faults 303 Faults in execution of the design 305 Poor quality materials used 306 Inappropriate use of material 306 Role of fashion and technical innovation 306 Conservation treatment errors 306 Contents ix 7.3 Deterioration of wooden structures – consequences 307 7.3.1 Broken and damaged parts and losses 307 7.3.2 Loose and lifting veneer 307 7.3.3 Loose and broken joints 308 7.3.4 Shrinkage, splitting and warping 308 7.3.5 Accretions and other surface disfigurement 310 7.3.6 Review of damage by structure 310 Carcase furniture 311 Tables 312 Bibliography 313 8 Deterioration of other materials and structures 315 8.1 Ivory, ivory-like teeth, bone and antler, horn and turtleshell 315 8.2 Mollusc shell – mother-of-pearl and related materials 316 8.3 Paper and paper products 317 8.4 Metals 317 Role of moisture 321 Chlorides 322 Light 322 Heat 322 Pollutants 322 Mechanical damage 323 8.5 Ceramics and glass 323 8.6 Stone and related materials 324 8.7 Colorants – pigments, dyes and stains 324 8.8 Plastics and polymers 326 Environmental stress cracking and crazing 327 Oxidation 327 The effect of light on polymers 328 The effect of heat on polymers 329 The effect of RH on polymers 329 The effect of pollution on polymers 329 Biological damage to polymers 330 Prevention and care 330 8.9 Coatings – deterioration of some common systems of surface decoration 331 8.9.1 The support 332
x Contents 8.9.2 The ground 333 8.9.3 The paint 335 8.9.4 Transparent top coatings – varnishes 337 Development of insoluble matter 339 8.9.5 Gilding 340 8.9.6 Oriental lacquer 342 8.9.7 Japanning 343 8.10 Adhesives 345 8.11 Deterioration of specific materials 345 8.11.1 Oils and fats 345 8.11.2 Waxes 346 8.11.3 Carbohydrates: sugars and polysaccharides 346 8.11.4 Proteins 346 8.11.5 Natural resins and lacquers 346 8.11.6 Synthetic materials 348 8.12 Deterioration of upholstery materials and structures 348 Prevention conservation 348 8.12.1 Top surface/simple structures 348 Leather, skin and parchment 348 Rush, reed and cane 349 Textiles 350 Chemical degradation 351 Biodeterioration 352 Structure of textiles 353 Dyes and finishes 353 Preventive conservation of textiles 354 Plastics 354 Rubber 355 Polyurethanes 356 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 357 Cellulose nitrate 358 Trimmings 358 Understructures 359 Hardware 359 Bibliography 360 PART 4 CONSERVATION 9 Conservation preliminaries 367 9.1 Context 367 9.1.1 Historical background 367 9.1.2 Definition of the profession 368 9.1.3 Professional organizations 369 9.1.4 The business of conservation 370 9.2 Ethics 370 9.2.1 Codes of ethics and practice 370 9.2.2 Historical conflict between restoration and preservation 371 9.2.3 Conservation as a cultural discipline 372 9.2.4 <strong>Tools</strong> for balanced ethical judgement 374 The V&A ethics checklist 375 9.3 Examination 380 9.3.1 Purpose of examination 380 9.3.2 What to look for 381 Structural damage 383 Surface effects 383 9.3.3 Methods of examination 384 General aspects of characterization 385 Estimating 386 Gross examination 386 Simple mechanical tests 388 Microscopic examination 390 Sampling 391 General aspects of analytical methods 393 Dating methods 394 9.4 Documentation 396 9.4.1 What is documentation and why is it important? 396 9.4.2 Information needs 396 9.4.3 Documentation methods 398 9.4.4 Setting up a documentation system 400 9.4.5 Photography 401 The film 402 The light source 402 Alternative light sources 405 The camera 406 9.5 Studio organization and layout 407 9.5.1 Workshop processes and procedures 408 Examination and recording of condition 408 Dismantling the object 408 Repair of existing components and making of new ones 408 Re-assembly 408 Finishing and colouring 408
Page 2 and 3: Conservation of Furniture
Page 4 and 5: Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
Page 6 and 7: Contents Series editors’ preface
Page 8 and 9: 3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
Page 12 and 13: Recording and reporting treatment 4
Page 14 and 15: 11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
Page 16 and 17: 15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
Page 18 and 19: 16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
Page 20 and 21: Series editors’ preface The conse
Page 22 and 23: Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
Page 24 and 25: Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
Page 26 and 27: Acknowledgements It would take a ve
Page 28 and 29: Illustration acknowledgements The a
Page 30 and 31: Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
Page 32 and 33: Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
Page 34 and 35: Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
Page 36 and 37: Part 1 History
Page 38 and 39: 1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
Page 40 and 41: Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
Page 42 and 43: Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
Page 44 and 45: conjunction of polychromy and carvi
Page 46 and 47: Materials used The choice of materi
Page 48 and 49: period reflects the dour and simple
Page 50 and 51: Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
Page 52 and 53: to use the continental dovetailing
Page 54 and 55: Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
Page 56 and 57: furniture by contrast was generally
Page 58 and 59: Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Page 164 and 165:
Page 166 and 167:
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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Page 178 and 179:
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Page 186 and 187:
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Page 192 and 193:
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Page 196 and 197:
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Page 208 and 209:
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Page 216 and 217:
Page 218 and 219:
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
Page 540 and 541:
adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545:
alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
Page 574 and 575:
carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577:
Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585:
Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
Page 598 and 599:
12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
Page 646 and 647:
Identifying a historical progressio
Page 648 and 649:
normally seen, so that it can be mo
Page 650 and 651:
Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657:
(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659:
Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
Page 664 and 665:
materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673:
applying fresh polish before pullin
Page 674 and 675:
the addition of a separate thixotro
Page 676 and 677:
Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681:
is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
Page 684 and 685:
necessary to use a size coat as str
Page 686 and 687:
however, makes it more difficult to
Page 688 and 689:
flutes or other details in the carv
Page 690 and 691:
14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
Page 692 and 693:
applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695:
Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
Page 712 and 713:
to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719:
of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725:
and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727:
(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737:
into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739:
(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
Page 740 and 741:
ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
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Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
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Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
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to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
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Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
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Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
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epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
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Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
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(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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