Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion of a branch that has been surrounded by the structure of the tree trunk as it continues to grow (a) Diagrammatic representation of a tree trunk where a branch has died and broken off. The tree will eventually encase the dead branch as it continues to grow, forming (in this case) an intergrown knot (intergrown knots have growth rings that are partly or completely intergrown with the growth rings of the tree trunk) (b–e) The appearance of the knot is dependent on how the tree trunk is converted into boards of wood. (b) Shows a spike knot, whose shape is a result of radial conversion of the log. Radial conversion cuts lengthwise or diagonally through the long axis of the original branch to produce a ‘spike’ shape that extends across the face of the board. When a log is converted by flat sawing (i.e. through and through conversion that produces mostly tangential boards) the knots are round or oval in shape and are called pin knots (c) or round knots (d) depending on their size. Tight knots are fixed in place by growth characteristics, shape, or position. Knots that are not held firmly in place by their growth ring structure or their position in the board are called loose knots: (e) shows the knothole formed when a loose knot is lost wood, among straight-grained and defect-free samples, may have twice the strength of the weakest. Most of this strength range is associated with a density variation and can therefore be sensed by the weight of the piece. Deterioration of wood and wooden structures 287 (b) (c) (d) (e) However some is due to subtle variations in cell structure and cannot be predicted. Extremely narrow or extremely wide growth rings lead to weaker timber. In ring-porous hardwoods, increasing rate of growth (ring
288 Conservation of Furniture width) results in an increase in the percentage of the late-wood, which contains most of the thick-walled fibres. Density will therefore increase and so will strength. However, there is an upper limit beyond which the tree is unable to produce the requisite thickness of wall in every cell. Among diffuse porous hardwoods there is no clear relationship between growth rate and strength unless the growth rate becomes excessive. In the softwoods, increasing rate of growth results in an increase in the percentage of low density early-wood as a result of which both density and strength decrease as ring width increases. The optimum growth ring rate for softwoods is 7–20 rings per inch and for hardwoods 6–10 rings per inch. For some purposes, working qualities may be of greater importance than absolute strength and in this respect timber produced under other than optimum growth conditions for strength may be deemed superior. Mildness in working is usually associated with narrow-ringed material. Grain direction is an important determinant of strength, stability, appearance and ease of working. It has a major bearing on the behaviour of wood in service and affects environmental response and structural integrity. For many purposes grain directions other than straight are regarded as defects. Straight grain timber, having the fibres parallel to the long axis of the wood, is strong and easy to work, but not usually ornamental. Irregular grain, with the fibres inclined at varying and irregular angles to the vertical axis in the log, has reduced strength and is more difficult to work but produces attractive figure – e.g. blister figure and birds eye. Diagonal grain, regarded as a defect of conversion, has reduced strength and stiffness. A 1:25 slope reduces bending strength by 4%, a 1:5 slope reduces bending strength by up to 45%. In spiral grain the fibres follow a left- or right-handed spiral course in the living tree. This is not always readily apparent but may be detected from the pattern of surface checks during seasoning and is a serious defect in timber intended for structural work. Interlocked grain, in which fibres of successive growth layers inclined in opposite directions producing a ribbon or stripe figure, is very common in tropical woods. It may not affect strength but can cause serious twisting during seasoning and severe difficulties in working, especially planing. Interlocked grain is virtually impossible to split and may be very hard to saw. In wavy grain the direction of the fibres changes constantly so that a line drawn parallel with them appears as a wavy line on a longitudinal surface. Wavy grain produces fiddle-back figure, exploited entirely for its decorative potential. Wavy grain and interlocked grain may occur together to give a broken ripple called roe figure on quarter-sawn surfaces. For further information on natural defects in wood see Desch (1973) and Panshin and de Zeeuw (1980). 7.1.2 Artificial defects – conversion and seasoning Green wood may contain up to 200% of its dry weight as water. It is therefore heavy, liable to rot and cannot be finished. Before use it must be seasoned and to do this effectively it has to be converted into smaller pieces. Conversion Conversion has a critical effect on the strength, appearance and drying of wood and therefore profoundly influences subsequent behaviour. Key decisions during conversion include whether to remove sapwood and how best to cut up the log to fully exploit its potential. Sapwood is more susceptible to insect attack due to stored food materials. Starch, which only occurs in any quantity in sapwood, is food for powder post beetle and sap stain fungi. In contrast, some of the materials present in the heartwood of some timbers are toxic to fungi and insects and act as natural preservatives (e.g. in cedar). The average commercial log is 25–30% sapwood but in smaller logs this figure may rise to 50% or more. Removing sapwood may therefore have significant cost implications. Various methods of conversion are used to provide economy, to select figure, to achieve good mechanical properties, to improve behaviour during seasoning, to work around defects in the log and to optimize performance in service. There is usually some trade-off between these various considerations. Live sawing (also called through and through) is economical but does not produce optimum
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
Page 272 and 273: Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
Page 274 and 275: Part 3 Deterioration
Page 276 and 277: 6 General review of environment and
Page 278 and 279: which water, oxygen and other react
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Page 284 and 285: Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
Page 286 and 287: through which daylight is highly di
Page 288 and 289: climate. An important aspect of the
Page 290 and 291: (a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
Page 292 and 293: panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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Page 300 and 301: about by localized conditions such
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Page 304 and 305: ing for some time before they are n
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Page 312 and 313: 6.2.8 Environmental management for
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Page 318 and 319: Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
Page 320 and 321: 7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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Page 332 and 333: (a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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Page 342 and 343: Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
Page 344 and 345: Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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Page 348 and 349: century. In between these examples
Page 350 and 351: 8 Deterioration of other materials
Page 352 and 353: (Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
Page 354 and 355: Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
Page 356 and 357: Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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Page 368 and 369: Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
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The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
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Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
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Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
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cation and characterization of the
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may not be representative of the ki
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Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
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that which occurs during the remova
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(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
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In the past, abrasives such as rott
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Wax has been used many times to inf
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permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
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Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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