Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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y enzymatic or lime action and which has been stretched in a wet state on a frame and left to dry under tension (Clarkson, 1992). Vellum describes a superior quality of parchment which may be made from calfskin, goatskin or the skin of a young, or fetal, animal (Cains, 1992). Parchment is most commonly found in books and documents and is usually treated by book or paper conservators. On occasion parchment may be found incorporated into furniture, for example that designed by Carlo Bugatti (see Figure 3.4). Parchment incorporated into passmenterie and decorative textile trimmings on furniture is commonplace. Parchment incorporated into furniture may have been treated very differently from that found in manuscripts or prints. It may have been oiled, waxed, painted or varnished as a protective or decorative treatment. Manufacturing processes will determine pH with alkaline processed skin generally having a higher pH, although certain parchments have had some or all of the lime removed during processing to impart translucency or other properties. Parchment is an extremely hygroscopic material and whilst this has general implications for preventative conservation it will also influence the type of conservation treatments which may be undertaken. If parchment is resoaked or left in a very damp environment it will become a gelatinous mass and may putrefy. If the environment is too dry it may become inflexible, hard and brittle. Clarkson (1992) stated: The addition of moisture, whether accidental or through deliberate treatment, without also renewing the tension on drying, allows reorientation of the fibre network. The affected part will swell, thicken, and contract. The fusing together of fibres will also cause transparency and inflexibility. Even a small amount of liquid spilt or left lying on the surface will alter the original surface treatments, with a tendency towards reglazing (with or without retensioning the membrane). Much of the damage done to parchment can be ascribed to equating it with paper and using inappropriate techniques such as pressing, wetting, gluing or backing. When incorporated into furniture, parchment may have been subjected to wear and tear as Conserving other materials II 737 a result of use. Light damage may cause fading of original painted or stained design elements. When it has been used as an upholstery material the tension exerted by the restrained parchment is immense, particularly if the object has been subjected to cycles of fluctuating RH. This may result in damage to poorly constructed frames, tears in the parchment at the fixing points or large tears at the weakest point across the skin. General references on parchment include de Hamel (1992), Haines (1999), Reed (1972) and Ruck (1991). Among conservators experienced in treating parchment there is wide variation about which treatment methods are effective or acceptable. Parchment Treatments, produced by the AIC Book and Paper Group in 1994, provides a useful overview. Cleaning Soiling may turn the parchment from a creamy yellow or light brown colour to a grubby and unattractive grey. The primary consideration for cleaning parchment is to avoid any treatment that will affect the tension of the parchment. Aqueous cleaning solutions should not be used. Although polar organic solvents have been used, for example in book and document conservation, parchment incorporated into furniture is usually restrained and polar solvents may result in changes in tension and should therefore, as a general rule, be avoided. The cleaning of parchment incorporated into furniture is dependent on whether the surface has been painted and/or varnished. Parchment surfaces which are undecorated and uncomplicated by the presence of varnish or wax may be surface cleaned using dry cleaning materials described in section 11.2.4 (Figure 16.11). Residues should be removed using a soft brush and a vacuum cleaner. Non-polar solvents will not affect the tension of the skin but may temporarily cause the parchment to become transparent. Cleaning of varnished and decorated surfaces applied to parchment may utilize the principles, materials and techniques outlined in Chapter 11 with the proviso that aqueous cleaning solutions should be avoided and the use of polar organic solvents minimized. Chapter 13 and section 16.6 provide specific information on the treatment of varnished and painted surfaces respectively.
738 Conservation of Furniture (a) (b) Figure 16.11 Cleaning painted parchment (a) Detail of a painted parchment panel before cleaning (b) After cleaning. Dry cleaning materials were used to remove dirt from the unpainted background Repair and support Parchment may be stiff, distorted or brittle and often requires indirect humidification before lifting edges or tears may be treated. Water in liquid form should never come into contact with the parchment. Spray application of water, for example from ultrasonic humidifiers or steam pencils, should not be used. The combination of heat and water is potentially disastrous. Localized humidification may be sufficient to soften the edges of the parchment to allow them to be flattened and realigned. Dampened blotting paper may be used as a reservoir for moisture. It must be isolated from the surface of the parchment using a semi-permeable membrane such as Gore-tex. The blotting paper may be covered with Melinex/Mylar to prevent evaporation of moisture from the blotting paper. As the parchment begins to soften, increasing pressure may be applied. When the parchment has been flattened, dry blotting paper may be substituted in order to reduce the moisture content. Heat should not be used in any conservation treatment (e.g. consolidation) until the parchment has been returned to ambient conditions and moisture content has stabilized. Once the edges of a tear have been realigned they may be supported from the rear of the parchment. The support material should have similar physical characteristics to the parchment and in particular should approximate the behaviour of parchment to fluctuations in relative humidity. It should also be mechanically weaker than the parchment. Materials such as artificial sausage casings, goldbeaters skin (processed sheep intestine), parchment or non-woven synthetic textiles (e.g. Reemay) have been used (<strong>Wood</strong>s, 1995). Adhesive applied to parchment should form an adhesive bond to the surface it is applied to, but should not penetrate through the thickness of the parchment. Any adhesive which wets through to the upper surface of the parchment will cause it to become translucent. The adhesive should be flexible. Beva 371 may be used to adhere a support to the rear of the parchment. As is the case with leather, stronger bonds may be formed when adhesive is applied to the support material rather than the parchment. A thin even layer of Beva 371 may be applied, either as a slightly warmed 40% solution as supplied or diluted with half the quantity of aromatic solvent to both the surface of the support. The solvent is allowed to evaporate, before reactivating the surface with solvent and pressing it into position. Moderate heat may be used to improve the adhesive bond. This technique will ensure a good adhesive bond but minimize adhesive penetration of the parchment. Aqueous adhesives are likely to be problematic for a conservator who is inexperienced in treating parchment and as a general rule should be avoided. More experienced conservators have used ‘dry’ solutions of wheat starch paste or collagen-based adhesives such as parchment size, rabbit skin glue or fish glue. PVAC and acrylic emulsions and dispersions which have a high aqueous content should be avoided unless diluted with a compatible hydrocarbon solvent.
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723: when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725: and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727: (a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729: into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731: Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733: Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
Page 734 and 735: (1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737: into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739: (a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
Page 740 and 741: ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743: The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745: solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747: Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749: Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751: coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753: acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755: 16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757: PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759: dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761: Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763: springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765: Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767: 16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769: minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771: (1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 774 and 775: The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777: Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779: may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781: If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783: cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785: may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787: Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789: that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791: (a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793: In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795: Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797: permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799: etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801: (a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803: Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805: Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807: ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809: tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811: (a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813: to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815: Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817: Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819: Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821: Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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