Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a carvable epoxy resin (a) Epoxy putty used to adhere and fill the joint between a large decorative element and the gilded frame where the fit was poor. An isolating layer should be used in conjunction with epoxy adhesives (b) Detail of the in-gilded repair In general a fill should be softer than the surrounding original material so that, in the event of substrate shrinkage, the fill is compressed and the original remains undamaged. For gesso fills this may mean the use of a size slightly weaker than the standard mix, or the addition of a slightly higher proportion of whiting, to produce a ‘soft’ fill. In situations where hygrometric swings are unavoidable, the use of a fill that remains slightly plastic may be indicated, such as microballoons in a synthetic resin with a low Tg and a low softening point. All filling should be preceded by cleaning and degreasing the site of loss before sizing it with the adhesive used as the binder for the fill. Infilling of losses to the gesso can utilize traditional or modern materials. Traditional mater- Conserving other materials II 775 ials are often applied using the same materials and techniques used to manufacture the original surface and, with the exception of a reduction in strength of the size, are carried out using the procedures outlined in Chapter 14. Some conservators adopt a mixed approach by applying a weak size to consolidate the edges of the loss, allowing it to dry and then applying an isolating layer of a dissimilar material such as an acrylic dispersion or a Paraloid. The fill is then carried out using rabbit skin gesso or gesso putty. The use of barium sulphate, an X-ray dense material, has been suggested as a method of tagging repairs to the gesso that would otherwise be difficult to locate in the future (Thornton, 1991a, 1991b). Unlike other compounds of barium, which are highly toxic, barium sulphate is chemically inert and can be safely used as a bulking agent (Thornton, 1998). The use of PVAL as a filling material discussed by Hebrard and Small (1991). PVAL is relatively chemically stable, has good working properties, porosity comparable to gesso and is reversible in organic solvents such as alcohol. Thornton (1991a) suggests that the criteria of reversibility can be met by isolating the fill from the original with a stable material such as a PVAC or Paraloid B72. He also discusses the use of composition, fillers based on a binding medium and calcium carbonate or microballoons, waxes and wood. Synthetic fillers, such as Paraloid B72 bulked with microballoons, may also find application in some cases. Great care must be taken to match bole colours exactly if intending to match new gilding to old. Proprietary wet clays can be blended to produce the desired colour. Green (1991) recommends using pipe clay mixed with pigment colour and parchment size to which a little graphite may be added to aid burnishing the bole or gold. With this mixture, the colour of the wet bole matches that of the dry burnished bole, thus a small amount of wet bole applied to a thumbnail can be used to test the colourmatch at different points on the object. Broadly speaking, there are three approaches that can be taken to in gilding. The first is purely restorative and utilizes the same materials and techniques as were used on the original. In the past this has resulted in repairs that cannot be separated from the original. Shell gold can be applied to a surface when only a hint of burnished gold is required to simulate
776 Conservation of Furniture the original finish (Green, 1991). It can also be used where original bole is intact, wear is visually distracting but the conservator wishes to avoid excessive in gilding. The second approach is to in-gild using a variety of synthetic mordants such as Paraloid B72, acrylic emulsions, PVAL or proprietary materials such as those produced by Kölner (Thornton, 1991b). The third approach is not to ingild at all but to compensate for loss using pigments, water colour or gouache. Iridescent pigments made from mica have been used by conservators who do not wish to in-gild but want greater reflectance than water colours offer (Moyer and Hanlon, 1996; Thornton, 1991b; Webb, 1994). Such metallic sheen pigments, sometimes called pearlescent pigments, are produced by the vapour deposition of thin layers of titanium and iron oxide on mica flakes and offer great stability (Thornton, 2000). 16.9.8 Composition Composition tends to crack with age and this can lead to breakage and loss. It also exhibits a tendency to shrinkage, warping, cupping and loss of the adhesive bond with the substrate (Wetherall, 1991). These problems can be caused or exacerbated by fluctuations in relative humidity or if excessive solvent applied during cleaning treatments runs through ageing cracks and weakens the adhesive bond between applied ornament and substrate (Green, 1991). The mixture of animal glue, resin and linseed oil means that composition may be damaged by water, polar solvents such as alcohol or acetone, and exposure to chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents such as dichloromethane, a component in many commercial paint strippers. Where loss of parts of the compo moulding have occurred it may be possible to take an impression from another part of the object and cast a replacement. Thornton (1991a) discusses a range of materials and techniques that can be used for this purpose. Composition is discussed in the context of moulding and casting in section 10.5. 16.9.9 Coatings As with other decorative surfaces, the decision whether to apply a coating to a gilded surface after a conservation treatment must be taken on a case-by-case basis, taking into consideration the desired aesthetic appearance, conditions of use, handling, display or storage. Although gilding is rarely varnished, a thin synthetic coating may offer a degree of protection for areas that will be exposed to wear in use, although such a coating is unlikely to reproduce the original appearance of a gilded surface. Rabbit skin or parchment size has traditionally been used as a coating and some gilders are able to remove this with minimal damage. Rabbit skin or parchment size is sometimes applied to an object when a similar layer was removed during cleaning. Collagen glues are hygroscopic and will shrink markedly in conditions of low RH. This can cause exfoliation of the gold leaf surface. Thorn (1987) has suggested that rabbit skin size will discolour over time and, if applied over water gilding, may prove difficult to remove without damaging the underlying gold. 16.9.10 Distressing The concept of patina is applied to gilded pieces in much the same way as it is to furniture. Patina represents the mark of the passage of time and is considered to add aesthetic, historic and monetary value to an object. Distressing is the process by which wear and minor damage that would occur as a normal result of handling, cleaning and use of the object is simulated on a new surface or repair. A current aesthetic is for the surface to appear old and in good condition but not overly restored, thus distressing is required to blend in areas that have been repaired which might otherwise appear glaring in comparison to the rest of the object. It is essential to study the surface of an old piece carefully to understand the degree of wear, where it has occurred, and the overall effect on the appearance of the object. It is important to remember that current perceptions of how a surface ‘should’ appear may be far removed from the intended original appearance. Distressing imitates original wear by rubbing carefully through the gold to expose the underlying layers. Any abrasive material may be used that produces acceptable results. Fine wire wool, fibreglass pens, abrasive powders such as pumice, rottenstone or talc (French chalk) may be used. Gilders whiting is a comparatively mild abrasive that allows the conservator
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
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Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753:
acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761: Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763: springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765: Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767: 16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769: minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771: (1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773: y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775: The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777: Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779: may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781: If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783: cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785: may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787: Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789: that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791: (a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793: In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795: Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797: permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799: etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801: (a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803: Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805: Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807: ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809: tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 812 and 813: to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815: Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817: Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819: Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821: Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823: Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825: Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827: Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829: deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831: textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833: extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835: plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837: Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839: epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841: (a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843: Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845: (a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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