Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained from the mane and the tail, is the highest grade, since it is the longest, strongest, and most resilient. Lower grades are shorter and more brittle. The curl is permanently set by boiling or steaming tightly twisted Upholstery materials and structures 117 Figure 3.9 Examples of upholstery fill materials: (a) curled hair; (b) coir fibre; (c) retted Spanish moss; (d) ulva marina; (e) tow; (f ) pre-moulded cavity foam (d) (e) (f) hair ropes. Curled hair is used for first and second fillings and skimmer layers. Feathers are light, horny epidermal outgrowths and down is the soft under feather. Before using as a filling, feathers are sometimes
118 Conservation of Furniture chopped into smaller pieces or curled to give them more resilience. Feathers from live birds are preferred but most now come from dead birds reared for meat production. Eider duck down is especially valued because of its high resilience and high warmth to weight ratio. The Drapers Dictionary of 1882 mentions that ‘shoddy’ (recycled shredded wool cloth) was used as a stuffing for saddles or furniture. An example of wool used as a secondary filling is cited in Housecraft of 1926: ‘The filling is preferably of hair, covered “topped out” with raw wool thick enough to cover the wooden edges well.’ Vegetable materials These can be categorized as: seed fibres (cotton, vegetable downs); stem or stalk fibres (e.g. straw), Bast Fibres (e.g. flax, hemp, jute); leaf fibres (pine wool, tampico, esparto grass, raffia, corn shucks); fruit fibres (coir); other vegetable materials (wood, sea wrack, latex). They can also be categorized according to their suitability for first fillings, second fillings, skimmer layers and roll edges. Coir, the fibre, obtained from the outer husk of the coconut (Cocus nucifera), was introduced to Britain around 1845. It forms a solid, densely packed filling and is a less expensive but less resilient substitute for curled hair. To obtain coir, the husk is split, retted and then beaten to loosen the fibres which are dried for use. Retting involves leaving stems to rot in water to separate the fibrous from the non fibrous parts of the plant. Spanish moss (Tilandia usneoides) is an epiphyte, a member of the Bromiliaceae family, from the southern United States of America and from Central America. It is available in several grades though not much used today, perhaps because of environmental threats to its survival. The black variety, which is retted longer and ginned more thoroughly, is of better quality than the grey (Bast, 1946). Spanish moss is inferior to top grade hair, but superior to short hair. Tow is a byproduct of the manufacture of bast fibres, during scutching or hackling, a process of beating to separate fibres from plant waste (Bast, 1946). It is a dense filling but has poor resilience. Algerian fibre is obtained from the leaves of palm grass (Chamareops humilus) which grows in Northern Africa and Southern Spain. The leaves are shredded and curled in a manner similar to hair. It is imported as rope and unwound at a fibre processing plant. The green fibre may be dyed black to achieve sterilization (probably because of the increase in temperature during dyeing). It is coarser than hair and best suited as a first filling. It has good resilience over a long period. Ulva marina is a type of seaweed processed by washing and drying. It is a coarse filling with very poor resistance and durability. Webster’s Encyclopaedia of Domestic Economy of 1845 says of seaweed: ‘Well spoken of as a stuffing for mattresses; does not harbour vermin ... is tolerably light and soft ... If not sufficiently washed is said to attract moisture, owing to a little salt remaining in it.’ The following loose fillings are softer and less resilient than the filling materials described hitherto. Therefore, in better quality work they are only used for second fillings or cushion stuffing, though they may occur elsewhere in poor quality upholstery. Kapok, a seed fibre of the Ceiba tree (Bombacaceae – Ceiba pentandra) is the most important but not the only source of this material. It is processed by ginning. The Drapers Dictionary of 1882 comments that ‘kapok is employed to a limited degree in upholstery ... used for stuffing chairs and pillows’. Cotton fillings are a byproduct of the manufacturing process of separating cotton seeds from cotton fibre. The short cotton linters, still attached to the seeds, are removed and formed into cotton felt. The earliest date for cotton wadding observed in upholstered furniture is around 1850. Straw and dried grasses pack down hard and are most suited as a linear filling for roll edges, see Howlett (1990). The identification of vegetable fillings is discussed by Catling and Grayson (1982). Elastomers, synthetic materials and latex Elastomers include materials such as natural or synthetic rubber that are able to resume their original length after stretching. Rubber was the first such material used in furniture production but has been much replaced by synthetic materials. Synthetic loose fillings include spaghetti and chip cut foams, foam crumb, cut and curled nylon monofilament and polystyrene beads.
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Page 104 and 105: A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
Page 106 and 107: Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
Page 108 and 109: In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
Page 110 and 111: Figure 2.12 A representative portio
Page 112 and 113: depending upon species, whether sap
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Page 116 and 117: Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
Page 118 and 119: mechanical effects of repeated shri
Page 120 and 121: wood member, for example, a block o
Page 122 and 123: The strength of wood in compression
Page 124 and 125: er of defects and repairs, and the
Page 126 and 127: unwanted movement in the joint is r
Page 128 and 129: 2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
Page 130 and 131: Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
Page 132 and 133: 3 Upholstery materials and structur
Page 134 and 135: Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
Page 136 and 137: Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
Page 138 and 139: it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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Page 142 and 143: Rattan or cane The cane that is use
Page 144 and 145: wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
Page 146 and 147: The surfaces of both woven and non-
Page 148 and 149: (Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
Page 150 and 151: was not until the early nineteenth
Page 154 and 155: The ability of elastomers to be mou
Page 156 and 157: include polysaccharide gums such as
Page 158 and 159: Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
Page 160 and 161: Plastics and polymers, coatings and
Page 166 and 167: Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
Page 168 and 169: Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
Page 200 and 201: CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
Page 568 and 569:
The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577:
Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585:
Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673:
applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
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Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
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Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
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The principles outlined above for s
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Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
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cation and characterization of the
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may not be representative of the ki
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Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
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that which occurs during the remova
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(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
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permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
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etouching and coating of lacquer ob
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(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
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Extended exposure to polar solvents
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Retouching may involve reproducing
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ethical considerations. Objects tha
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tion will need to be reduced accord
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(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
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to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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