Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of conserving and repairing wooden furniture 451 Group Abrasive name and Hardness Sizes Notes (names given in brackets are composition Mohs Knoop available trade names) Diamond Carbides Aluminium oxides Garnets Metallic oxides Synthetic diamond: Pure carbon Natural diamond: Carbon + impurities Boron carbide: – B 6C or B 4C Silicon carbide: – SiC Tungsten carbide: WC, W 2C, W 3C, W 3C 4 – the forms may be mixed Alumina: Al 2O 3 (synthetic form) Corundum: – Al 2O 3+ various impurities Emery: (impure corundum) – 55–75% Al 2O 3 in an iron oxide matrix Garnet: 3RO.R' 2O3.3SiO 2 where R is Ca, Mg, Fe or Mn. R' is Al, Cr or Fe Cerium oxide: CeO 2 ‘yellow rouge’ but usually mixed with oxides of the Lanthanum series (elements 57–71) Chromium oxide: CrO 2 ‘green rouge’ 10 9.3 see notes 8–9 8 6–7.5 5500–7000 2800 2500 see notes 2000 Coarse – v. fine Standard mesh Standard mesh Standard mesh Standard meshes + fine flour grades F, FF and FFF Crystals 0.1–1 μm Hardest substance known. Used to cut, grind and polish all very hard materials including diamonds Natural industrial grade or ‘bort’ is slightly softer than the synthetic variety because of impurities and inclusions Synthetic. Second only to diamond in hardness. Used for similar applications The most common abrasive available in granular form or bonded on paper (Wet or Dry) or in the form of oil stones and grinding wheels (Carborundum, Carbolon, Carbolite) Tungsten carbide crystals have Mohs hardness > 9.5, but when alloyed with cobalt and nickel and sintered at high temperature to produce pieces large enough for cutting tools (Widia Metal, Carboloy, Diamondite), the hardness is Knoop 1880 – softer than the aluminium oxides A very useful and common abrasive available in powder form and also bonded together to make India stones and Japanese water stones. Very fine particle sizes of two crystalline types for very fine polishing operations are also available: type A alpha alumina 0.3 (Mohs 9) and type B gamma alumina 0.1 (Mohs 8) (Aloxite, Lionite, Garnal) Natural varieties include sapphire and ruby. Grades containing iron oxide impurities that are softer than sapphire and ruby and are unsuitable for gems have been used as abrasives since antiquity. A fine synthetic corundum abrasive is available for gem and stone polishing (Linde A) Once the most common abrasive material. Modern polishing emery is likely to be an artificial mixture of synthetic alumina and iron oxide. The most common use is emery paper A family of minerals with the general formula shown in column 2. Used extensively for abrasive paper coating. The twelve types are often mixed but the iron garnet, almandite, is the hardest and most useful for abrasives and is used on garnet paper Fine yellow powder useful for polishing glass and hard stones Used for polishing stainless steel and hard plastics continued
452 Conservation of Furniture Table 10.3 Abrasives – continued Group Abrasive name and Hardness Sizes Notes (names given in brackets are composition Mohs Knoop available trade names) Silicon dioxide Limestone and claystone Calcium carbonate Iron oxide: ‘Crocus’ red ferric oxide and ‘rouge’ hydrated iron oxide Tin oxide: SnO 2 stannic oxide SiO 2: Crystalline forms include quartz, sandstone, quartzite, flint SiO 2: Vitreous (amorphous) forms include powdered glass and pumice SiO 2: Opaline (amorphous) forms, with up to 10% water include various forms of diatomaceous earth Claystone: very fine, argillaceous (clay like) silicates composed of silica, alumina, and iron oxides Rottenstone: weathered, silaceous, argillaceous limestone Cuttlefish bone: soft, porous, internal skeleton of a type of squid Whiting: chemically precipitated or naturally occurring CaCO 3 5.5–6.5 1–1.5 1–2 Particle size
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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Page 442 and 443: • Availability of adaptors for cl
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Page 450 and 451: Solvent storage Solvents should be
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Page 454 and 455: Wherever possible, manual handling
Page 456 and 457: some specific details of that proce
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Page 460 and 461: (a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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Page 464 and 465: general maintenance of the workshop
Page 466 and 467: and other emergencies such as gas l
Page 468 and 469: Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
Page 470 and 471: Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
Page 472 and 473: example, extensive treatment on one
Page 474 and 475: of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
Page 476 and 477: (a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
Page 478 and 479: (a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
Page 480 and 481: Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
Page 482 and 483: (a) (b) Principles of conserving an
Page 484 and 485: Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
Page 488 and 489: Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
Page 490 and 491: measure the diagonals across the se
Page 492 and 493: (i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
Page 494 and 495: 10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
Page 496 and 497: microballoons. They may be levelled
Page 498 and 499: Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
Page 500 and 501: as a gap filler in cases where a fa
Page 502 and 503: should be critically evaluated befo
Page 504 and 505: (a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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Page 508 and 509: e progressively tightened over the
Page 510 and 511: Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
Page 512 and 513: (a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
Page 514 and 515: ducing the curves on boulle and mar
Page 516 and 517: similar fabric is stretched across
Page 518 and 519: ures involved in preparing a copy o
Page 520 and 521: and capture a high degree of detail
Page 522 and 523: materials, used extensively by scul
Page 524 and 525: making material. Traditional releas
Page 526 and 527: The compo can be rolled out into a
Page 528 and 529: Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
Page 530 and 531: ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
Page 532 and 533: (a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
Page 534 and 535: Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577:
Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585:
Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
Page 654 and 655:
e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657:
(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659:
Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
Page 664 and 665:
materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673:
applying fresh polish before pullin
Page 674 and 675:
the addition of a separate thixotro
Page 676 and 677:
Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681:
is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
Page 684 and 685:
necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
Page 688 and 689:
flutes or other details in the carv
Page 690 and 691:
14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
Page 692 and 693:
applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695:
Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
Page 696 and 697:
14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
Page 708 and 709:
shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
Page 712 and 713:
to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
Page 714 and 715:
emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719:
of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
Page 720 and 721:
gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723:
when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725:
and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727:
(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
Page 734 and 735:
(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737:
into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739:
(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
Page 740 and 741:
ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753:
acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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