Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Consolidation Powdering or flaking is often associated with archaeological ivory, either as a result of age or the presence of salts as a result of burial. Spalling may be caused by the use of adhesives that exhibit excessive shrinkage. Snow and Weisser (1984) have described a consolidation treatment that may be relevant in such cases. Ivory incorporated into nonarchaeological furniture is more likely to have cracked, buckled or curled as a result of high, low or fluctuating RH. In such cases two options may be considered – humidifying and flattening the ivory, or supporting it in situ using an adhesive and bulking agent. Humidification The traditional treatment for curled and buckled ivory was removal followed by soaking in hot (but not boiling) water. This is not recommended as it is likely to exacerbate distortion or damage. The use of a humidification chamber is recommended to allow greater control of the process. Whilst humidity may be introduced comparatively rapidly, it is essential to return the ivory to ambient RH in slow stages to avoid splitting. RH may be raised up to 80% in a comparatively short time (days) depending on the thickness of the piece – thicker pieces may require weeks. Ivory often flattens as it is humidified but if it does not, it may be flattened with weights. Wide thin veneer (up to 1 mm) can be weighted fairly quickly, whilst narrow thicker pieces need to be weighted more slowly because of the increased risk that they will snap. Once flat, the weight/s should be kept in place while RH is lowered. RH should be reduced regularly and gradually, with rest periods in between to ensure the ivory has achieved equilibrium. Thicker pieces may require six to eight weeks, whilst the RH for thinner pieces can be returned to ambient in two to four weeks. Partially detached ivory that has not warped may be readhered using animal glue. This adhesive may be less desirable if the ivory is cracked, when capillary action may draw the adhesive along the cracks and darken them in time. If the adhesive bond has broken but the old glue still forms a coherent layer, it may be possible to introduce solvent-based adhesive. This option may be chosen when it is desir- Conserving other materials I 669 able to leave original adhesive for future analysis or where the adhesive layer is very thick and its removal would require back filling before ivory could be relaid. Adhesives The thinner the ivory the more prone it will be to warp when exposed to aqueous adhesives. Whilst the use of animal glues is not recommended for three-dimensional ivories, it may be appropriate for reattaching ivory to furniture. If a collagen glue is used it should be freshly made and prepared in a non-ferrous glue pot. A good quality medium to high bloom strength glue, such as hide glue, rabbit skin glue or a high tack fish glue may be used, particularly where there is very little mating surface in a break and strength is a paramount concern. Proteinaceous adhesives provide a stronger bond on clean ivory than other adhesives. Paraloid B72 is a good adhesive for ivory. The flexibility of the polymer is affected by the solvent in which it was dissolved (see section 12.4.3). Some conservators prefer PVAC or acrylic dispersions because they are swellable in acetone. PVAC adhesives are generally stronger and less flexible than acrylics (Down et al., 1996). These synthetics may be more liable to exhibit cold flow (creep) under stress than a collagen glue and may retain water for longer, inducing re-curling. Residues of old adhesives must be removed from substrate and ivory to ensure a good adhesive bond. Reversing PVAC or acrylic adhesives often requires solvents that may damage adjacent materials or coatings. Cellulose nitrate adhesives have been used because they have good adhesive properties. They have been associated with yellowing, especially with exposure to light, though this may be less of a problem if applied underneath thick, non-translucent ivory. Epoxies are not usually appropriate because they tend to yellow, and if the joint is good it can be extremely difficult to reverse without damaging the ivory. Whichever adhesive is chosen, the reattached ivory should be weighted or cramped for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, depending on the complexity and size of the piece. Ivory may be secured in a non-planar position using an adhesive and bulking agent. A paste or putty may be made using Paraloid
670 Conservation of Furniture B72 or an emulsion/dispersion combined with a filler such as microballoons. Paraloid B72 deposited from a solvent such as xylene or toluene is more flexible than that deposited from acetone. Acetone may be used as the solvent for a putty based on emulsions or dispersions to reduce the water content of the putty. Pigment, toned to the background colour of adjacent material, may be added to stiffer mixes to speed later retouching. Less viscous pastes are more likely to penetrate the ivory, carrying pigmenting material with them and causing discoloration. Cracks in ivory may be filled using a viscous, non-aqueous bulked mixture, to minimize solvent migration into ivory. In some cases it may be possible to use moulding and casting techniques to fabricate repairs (see section 10.5). In many cases, however, cracks are often stained, and the final appearance of an ivory-coloured fill surrounded by a stained halo may be less desirable than untreated damage. Replacements A variety of materials have been used to replace lost ivory elements. International trade in ivory was banned in 1990 under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (known as CITES). In 1997 the elephants in Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana were downlisted to Appendix II, and in theory ivory from these species can be traded with permits. In fact, the stringent conditions imposed has meant that legal trade in ivory remains problematic. Given the cost and difficulty of acquiring ivory, restorers and conservators more often rely on recycling ivory, e.g. Victorian piano keys for escutcheons, or they make their own substitutes from thermosetting resins. Mammoth tusks are a legal alternative to ivory. Bones with a comparative density to ivory, such as the long bones of cattle, camel (high density) or horses may also be used to replace losses. The joints are cut from the ends and the bone boiled to remove fat, flesh and marrow, until no more scum is formed. This may take several hours, depending on the size of the bone. The water is replaced and the bone boiled again, rinsed and left to soak for a day or two in clean water, then dried. It may then be sawn and worked to produce veneer or inlay. Large sections of cattle femur bones may be available from pet shops. These are dense and clean and may not require such extensive preparation. Synthetic ivories are often based on bulked polyester resin and are available in both sheets and rods. It may be possible to replace carved or turned elements using materials and techniques described in section 10.5. A convincing ivory substitute may be made using a light stable epoxy such as HXTAL NYL-1 bulked with calcium carbonate and pigmented as needed with dry pigments. This mixture can be rolled down to an accurate gauge when partially set to produce a sheet. Vegetable ivory may be used, though the main draw back of such material is its small size. Painted wood has often been used though the success of the replacement is often dependent on colour matching skill. Staining ivory Ivory veneer may have been stained and some experimentation may be required to match replacement veneer to extant stained material. A range of nineteenth century recipes may be found in sources such as Siddons (1830) or Mussey (1987), Spons Workshop Receipts (1873 and later editions) and Bitmead (1873), among others. Ramond (1989) recommends pre-treating ivory by soaking it in a mordant solution of vinegar and alum for six to eight hours to ensure an even and durable stain, though this is a very harsh method. Saffron may be used to produce a golden-yellow colour, verdigris for green, campeche (logwood, Haemotoxylon campechianum) for a purple-pink and pernamouc wood (brazilwood, Caesalpinia crista) for a reddish brown. Many traditional stains, such as those produced by saffron, logwood and brazilwood, are fugitive. Modern alternatives include textile dyes – those that stain silk well tend to be effective on ivory. Polychrome ivory It is common for ivory from the Indian subcontinent or the Far East to retain traces of polychromy. Isinglass, though hygroscopic, is often an effective consolidant for cupped flakes of paint. Its water content tends to soften paint and its surface tension may pull flakes down. Some conservators prefer to use
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
Page 654 and 655: e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657: (a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659: Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
Page 660 and 661: Thus conservation grade materials m
Page 662 and 663: ing the colour. This may be useful
Page 664 and 665: materials is their photochemical st
Page 666 and 667: (a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
Page 668 and 669: French polishing French polishing d
Page 670 and 671: during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673: applying fresh polish before pullin
Page 674 and 675: the addition of a separate thixotro
Page 676 and 677: Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
Page 678 and 679: eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681: is used for laying gold and silver
Page 682 and 683: wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
Page 684 and 685: necessary to use a size coat as str
Page 686 and 687: however, makes it more difficult to
Page 688 and 689: flutes or other details in the carv
Page 690 and 691: 14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
Page 692 and 693: applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695: Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
Page 696 and 697: 14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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Page 700 and 701: areas, however deep, that have been
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Page 706 and 707: synthetic materials, such as Paralo
Page 708 and 709: shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
Page 710 and 711: oration and brittleness. The cellul
Page 712 and 713: to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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Page 716 and 717: Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719: of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
Page 720 and 721: gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723: when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725: and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727: (a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729: into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731: Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733: Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
Page 734 and 735: (1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737: into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739: (a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
Page 740 and 741: ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743: The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745: solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747: Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749: Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751: coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753: acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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