Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Textiles, 107–12, 120 conservation, 740–3 cleaning, 742 loose and lifting linings, 742–3 deterioration, 350–4, 741 biodeterioration, 352–3 chemical degradation, 351–2 dyes and finishes, 353–4 structure and, 353 dyeing, 109 fibres, 108–9 spinning, 109 finishes, 111 identification, 111 preventive conservation, 354 reapplication of, 729 structures, 109–10 non-woven, 110 woven, 109–10 surface decoration, 110–11 Thermal expansion, 291 Thermodynamics, 244–6 Thioglycolic acid, 692 Thixotropes, 638 Thonet, 32, 35, 40 Threshold Limit Value (TLV), 426, 515 Thrones, history of, 4, 6 Tiffany, Louis Comfort, 30 Timber: history of use, 8, 11 international trade, 24 See also Woods Tin, 210 coatings, 211 plating, 689 Tinuvin 292, 596 Toluene, 508, 515 Toning, 777 Tools, 417–20 bench, 418 gilding tools, 643–6 metalworking tools, 418 storage, 415 woodworking tools, 417–18 Tortoiseshell, 16, 201–2, 470–1 deterioration, 315–16, 475 identification, 203–4 properties, 202–3 See also Boulle work; Turtleshell Tow, 118 Townsend-Goddard family, 20 Tracheids, 55–7, 59 Trade organization: Medieval period, 9 16th Century, 12 17th Century, 16–17 18th Century, 26 19th Century, 34–5 20th Century, 41 Traditional Paint Forum, 146 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), wood identification, 74 Transmittance, 138 Tratteggio, 578 Travertine, 218 Triethanolamine (TEA), 512, 692, 751 Triglycerides, 162–3, 164 Trimmings, 113–14 deterioration, 358–9 Tripoli powder, 154, 155 Tulip chair, 36, 39 Tunbridge ware, 19, 34 Tung oil, 631 Tungsten lamps, 251 Turitella, 218 Turning, See Wood-turning Turpentine, 509, 590 Turtleshell, 16, 201–2 conservation, 671–3 cleaning, 671 coatings, 673 consolidation, 671–2 loss replacement, 672–3 identification, 203–4 properties, 202–3 See also Tortoiseshell Tusks, 194–5, 196 Tutankhamen's gold throne, 4 Twentieth Century, 35–41 context, 35–7 materials used, 37–40 surface decoration and finish, 40–1 tools and techniques, 40 trade organization, 41 Twill weave, 110 Ultramarine, 325 Ultraviolet radiation, 247–8 absorbers, 592 control of, 248–9, 415 use in examination, 387–8 use in photography, 405 Ulva marina, 118 Undercoats, 145 Upholstery, 97–121 adhesives, 120–1 buttoning, 99 classification, 97 conservation, See Upholstery conservation deterioration of, See Deterioration examination, 100 Index 801 fillings, 31, 99, 116–19, 359 animal materials, 116–18 elastomers, 118–19 foams, 119 sheet and moulded materials, 119 vegetable materials, 118 hardware, 114–15, 359–60, 727–8 history of, 13, 31, 39–40, 98–100 springs, 39, 40, 99, 120, 728 support systems, 119–20 fabrics and twines, 120 springs, 120 webbing, 119–20 terminology, 97–8 top coverings/simple structures, 100–14, 348–59 coated fabrics and leather cloths, 113 interworked materials, 105–7, 349–50 leather, skin and parchment, 101–5, 348–9 synthetic polymers and plastics, 112–13, 354–8 textiles, 107–12, 350–4 trimmings, 113–14, 358–9 understructures, 115–16, 359 workshop requirements, 412–13 Upholstery conservation, 348, 721–9 documentation, 723, 726–7 ethics, 722–3 examination, 723 frame condition, 724 invasive treatments, 726–9 cleaning, 728 independent sub-frames, 729 metal fixings, 727–8 reapplication of lined textiles, 729 removal and documentation, 726–7 storage for study, 729 supports, 728–9 materials, 725 non-invasive treatments, 725–6 case covers, 726 semi-transparent coverings, 725–6 stabilizing with repairs, 726 supports, 726 surface cleaning, 725 previous interventions, 723–4 Urea formaldehyde (UF), 134 adhesives, 184, 443 Urushi, See Lacquered (urushi) furniture conservation; Oriental lacquer
802 Index Vapour pressure, 513 Varnishes, 146, 174, 595–8 cleaning, 608–10 degraded varnish treatment, 627–8 deterioration, 337–40, 586–7, 590 development of insoluble matter, 339–40 dulling/matting down, 590–2, 638–9 fixed oil varnishes, 147 formulation, 589–90 historical use of, 147–8 identification, 187 in-filling losses, 612 japanned furniture, 759–60 pigmented, 145 removal of, 496, 500, 524–5, 746–51 alkaline reagents, 749 aqueous methods, 749–51 dissolution process, 517–18 from lacquered surfaces, 765–6 japanned furniture, 757 mechanical removal, 747 solvents, 747–9 synthetic varnishes, 751 selection of, 593 spirit varnishes, 147 stabilizers, 592 tar varnish, 156 thermoplastic resin varnishes, 147 thermosetting varnishes, 147 See also Coatings Varnishing, 19, 25 Vegetable tanning, 101–2 Vellum, 104, 737 See also Parchment Veneers, 87–8 application, 445, 471–3 conservation, 470–81 cleaning, 473–4 consolidation, 474–6 laying veneer, 471–3 lifting original veneer, 480–1 loss replacement, 476–80 deterioration, 304, 306, 312, 316, 333 loose and lifting veneer, 307–8 history of, 14, 16, 18 oyster veneers, 16, 18, 480 production, 87–8 repair, warping and, 467 Verdigris, 325 Vermilion, 325 Vernis Martin, 25–6 Verre eglomisé, 19 Vessel elements, 58 Victoria and Albert Museum Ethics Checklist, 375–80 Victorian period, 29, 30 Viscosity, 513–14 Vulcanization, 112 Wakefield, Cyrus, 31 Wallmaster Chemical Sponge, 504 Walnut, 23, 30, 63, 73 Warping, 289, 290, 309–10 repair, 465–8 Wassily chair, 37 Water, 529–30 Water aerosol, 262 Water clays, 485 Water colours, 584–5 Water damage, 281–2 Water gilding, See Gilding Water marks, 338 treatment, 611–12 Water spray, 265 Water stains, 619 Wax pastes, 553 Waxes, 138, 146, 165–7, 629–30 animal waxes, 166 application to varnished wood, 629–30 as consolidants, 162 for decorative surfaces, 567–8 for wood, 565 as filling materials, 577, 623, 735, 759, 768 commercial products, 167 deterioration, 346 finishes, 608 identification, 187–8 melting point, 187–8 metal coatings, 212, 686–7, 692 mineral waxes, 166–7 plant waxes, 166 removal from lacquered surfaces, 765 use in moulding and casting, 483–5 Weathering, 326 Weaves, 110–11 Webbing, 119–20, 350 Weber, Kem, 36 Wegner, Hans, 36 Wet rot, 294–5 Wetting, 157–8, 560 White rot, 294 White spirit, 508, 509 Whittock, Nathaniel, 34 Wholesalers, 34–5 Wicker, 31, 106 deterioration, 350 identification, 107 Widening joints, 89, 90 Williamson, Rupert, 36 Windsor chairs, 22 Wing chair, 23 Wire, 37 Wire wool, 454, 690 Wishab sponge, 504 Wood swelling agents, 460 Wood-inhabiting insects, See Insect pests Wood-turning, history of, 10, 11, 18 origins, 4 Wood-water relationships, 50–1, 76–83, 256 deterioration and, 292–4 dimensional changes, 79–80, 256, 292–3 estimation of, 80–3 shrinkage, 79–80, 292–3 fibre saturation point (FSP), 76, 77 hygroscopicity, 77 moisture content (MC), 76 equilibrium moisture content (EMC), 77 measurement of, 77–9 See also Relative humidity Wooden furniture conservation, 436–91 adhesion, 440–2, 444 selection of adhesive, 442–4 assembly, 444 construction of repair piece, 439 cramping/clamping, 444–8 diagnosis of cause of failure, 437 dismantling, 454–7 joint cleaning after dismantling, 458 fitting the repair to the object, 439–40 frames, 459–60 insect damage repair, 458 joint reinforcement, 459 levelling repairs, 440, 448–9 moulding and casting, 482–91 colorants and fillers, 489 finishing, 489–90 gilders composition, 490–1 making a mould, 489 release agents, 488–9 selection of materials, 483–8 repair by damage type, 460–570 breaks and losses, 468–9 faulty construction, 470 hinges, 465 joint failures, 460–1 shrinkage checks and splits, 461–5 warping, 465–8
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
Page 702 and 703:
15 Conserving other materials I Thi
Page 704 and 705:
Consolidation Powdering or flaking
Page 706 and 707:
synthetic materials, such as Paralo
Page 708 and 709:
shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
Page 710 and 711:
oration and brittleness. The cellul
Page 712 and 713:
to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
Page 714 and 715:
emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719:
of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
Page 720 and 721:
gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723:
when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725:
and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727:
(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
Page 734 and 735:
(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737:
into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739:
(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
Page 740 and 741:
ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753:
acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787: Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789: that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791: (a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793: In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795: Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797: permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799: etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801: (a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803: Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805: Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807: ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809: tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811: (a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813: to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815: Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817: Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819: Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821: Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823: Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825: Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827: Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829: deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831: textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833: extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835: plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 838 and 839: epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841: (a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843: Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845: (a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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