Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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shell or horn itself may be dyed with a light fast water soluble dye by simmering the shell gently for a few minutes, though extended simmering will cause shell and horn to delaminate. The overall tone of the dyed shell may then be adjusted by using pigmented glue or paper underneath. In some cases, for example when matching an adjacent surface, it may be necessary to apply a varnish or tinted glaze. Many alternatives to turtleshell and horn have been utilized and include a variety of pigmented fill materials from sealing wax, shellac, epoxy resin, polyester resin, guitar picks and acetate sheets (Lochhead, 1989). It may be possible to cast replacements, though polyesters may require the addition of an inert powder to impart opacity. Imitation turtle shell can be made from epoxy resin tinted with Orasol dyes (Ciba–Geigy). As with the ivory substitute described above, the dyed epoxy can be accurately rolled to thickness between guides or in a rolling mill before it has completely set (Figure 15.1a,b). If a thermoset is cast directly into the surface a reversible isolating layer should be used. Coatings Wax may be used as a coating to resaturate an aged surface, matte surface. A mixture of beeswax and carnauba wax paste may impart a high sheen. 15.1.3 Mother-of-pearl Although mother-of-pearl is an organic material, it has a high inorganic content. It is nonporous, brittle and may be prone to delamination. Calcium in the shell will be attacked in acidic conditions. Shells and shell material can be attacked by organic acids in the air and show fuzzy crystals of calcium formate, sometimes known as Bynes disease (Tennent and Baird, 1985). Long exposure to acidic conditions may completely destroy the shell. The susceptibility to acids was exploited in the past to etch shell. Wax was applied to the shell, a design traced through the wax, and the shell then dipped into an acidic solution, etching the surface of the shell where it was exposed. Cleaning A dampened swab is usually sufficient to clean mother-of-pearl, though acidic solutions (a) (b) Conserving other materials I 673 Figure 15.1 Epoxy turtleshell substitute: (a) rolling to the required thickness using a rolling mill; (b) substitute ready to be cut to shape should be avoided. Organic solvents may be used if they are compatible with the adjacent surfaces. Hydrocarbon solvents are effective in removing greasy accretions. Atmospheric
674 Conservation of Furniture pollution may lead to degradation and the formation of a powdery surface. This may be left untouched, but if removal is required it will require a stiff brush and will reveal a dull white surface. This may be left intact, or the original surface approximated by the use of fine abrasives or the application or a coating such as varnish, with the possible addition of mica or lustre pigments. Painted or gilded decoration was often applied to mother-of-pearl, for example on many nineteenth-century papier mâché objects. Swabs should be lightly rolled over the surface as paint may be poorly adhered and easily lost through careless cleaning. Poorly adhered paint may require consolidation before cleaning and the removal of discoloured varnish may be problematic. Consolidation It can be difficult to achieve a good adhesive bond with mother-of-pearl. Loss frequently occurs as a result of substrate unevenness or movement. Careful examination may reveal a shimmer of nacreous residue, particularly after loss from an urushi surface. The adhesive used to adhere shell should be flexible. A high bloom strength collagen or high tack fish glue may be used. Acrylic emulsions/dispersions are less acidic than PVAC and give a weaker adhesive bond but a more flexible film. The adhesive chosen should be compatible with adjacent material. So, for example, whilst the acetone necessary to swell many acrylics is compatible with mother-of-pearl, it will damage resinous japanning and may be problematic for oil based japanning. In cases where the shell is thin and has been laid onto a dark ground, it may be necessary to add a small amount of white pigment to the adhesive. If loss has occurred because the substrate is uneven, it may be necessary to back fill to provide a flat surface to readhere original or replacement shell. A microballoon bulked adhesive may be used and should be compatible with the adhesive used to readhere the shell. Cracked shell may be lifted, cleaned and relaid. Replacing losses It can be difficult to match the reflectivity and colour of original shell, and a successful match requires a wide selection of replacement material or a good supplier. Mother-of-pearl may be cut and shaped using small and thin high-speed diamond impregnated saw blades and burrs in a flexible shaft machine or Dremel machine. A traditional method of cutting mother-of-pearl replacements is to use a piercing or fret saw on a vice held fretsaw frame (see Figure 10.22). The brittle shell will require a support such as thin plywood, which may be adhered with thinned animal glue. An isolating layer of paper will speed separation when the shaped piece is soaked in water. Very thin shell, such as Japanese awabe or abalone, may be difficult to cut using a saw. Pieces may be acid cut by coating the area required with wax and dipping the shell in vinegar, weak hydrochloric or acetic acid to dissolve excess. Although such thin shell will split if sawn, it may be possible to cut straight lined replacements with a scalpel. Areas of black shell may be matched by treating the replacement with silver nitrate and leaving it in the sun. Mica pigments have been used as an alternative to shell. A filler such as plaster or gesso may be used to create a smooth surface. Mica pigments give the best results when brushed onto a tacky adhesive so that the thin platelet particles align parallel to the eye. Such inpainting, skilfully executed, is extremely effective and avoids potential future problems in distinguishing original material from replacements. Materials and techniques used for filling glass may be applicable in some cases (Davison, 1998). Coatings Coatings on mother-of-pearl are usually applied as part of treatment of an entire surface. Coatings that require polar solvents for removal should not be applied over polychromed shell. In such cases a photochemically stabilized varnish, discussed in section 12.4.1, may be appropriate. 15.2 Paper labels and linings on furniture Paper, which is usually alkaline, is most stable in an environment close to neutral pH or in alkaline conditions. As paper ages and oxidizes it becomes acidic, causing discol-
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659: Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
Page 660 and 661: Thus conservation grade materials m
Page 662 and 663: ing the colour. This may be useful
Page 664 and 665: materials is their photochemical st
Page 666 and 667: (a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
Page 668 and 669: French polishing French polishing d
Page 670 and 671: during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673: applying fresh polish before pullin
Page 674 and 675: the addition of a separate thixotro
Page 676 and 677: Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
Page 678 and 679: eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681: is used for laying gold and silver
Page 682 and 683: wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
Page 684 and 685: necessary to use a size coat as str
Page 686 and 687: however, makes it more difficult to
Page 688 and 689: flutes or other details in the carv
Page 690 and 691: 14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
Page 692 and 693: applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695: Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
Page 696 and 697: 14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
Page 698 and 699: ground would be prepared uniformly
Page 700 and 701: areas, however deep, that have been
Page 702 and 703: 15 Conserving other materials I Thi
Page 704 and 705: Consolidation Powdering or flaking
Page 706 and 707: synthetic materials, such as Paralo
Page 710 and 711: oration and brittleness. The cellul
Page 712 and 713: to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
Page 714 and 715: emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717: Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719: of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
Page 720 and 721: gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723: when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725: and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727: (a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729: into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731: Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733: Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
Page 734 and 735: (1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737: into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739: (a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
Page 740 and 741: ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743: The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745: solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747: Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749: Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751: coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753: acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755: 16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757: PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
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Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
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The principles outlined above for s
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Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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