Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants on a set of Dutch marquetry furniture from the late 18th century, in Contributions of the Central Research Laboratory to the Field of Conservation and Restoration, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Samet, W. (compiler) (1998) Painting Conservation Catalogue: Varnish and Surface Coatings, AIC Paintings Specialty Group Sheraton, Thomas (1803) The Cabinet Dictionary, Praeger facsimile edition, 1970 Spons Workshop Receipts, for the use of Manufacturers, Mechanics, and Scientific Amateurs (1884), E&FN Spon Thornton, J. (1998a) A brief history and review of the early practice and materials of gap-filling in the West, JAIC, 37, 3–22 Thornton, J. (1998b) The use of dyes and coloured varnishes in wood polychromy, Painted <strong>Wood</strong>: History and Conservation, Symposium Proceedings Getty Conservation Institute, pp. 226–41 Conserving transparent coatings on wood 641 Walch, K. (1993) Traditional coating techniques in Germany: general overview and conservation case studies, in Conservation of Urushi Objects, Tokyo National Research Institute of Cultural Properties Walch, K. (1997) Baroque and Rococo transparent gloss lacquers, in K. Walch and J. Koller (eds), Baroque and Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des Bayerischen Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege Walch, K. and Koller, J. (1997) Baroque and Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des Bayerischen Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege Watin (1755), L’Art du peintre, reprinted Chez Leonce Larget, 1975 Williams, D.C. (1988) Shellac finishing: a traditional finish still yields outstanding results, Fine <strong>Wood</strong>working, July, 56–59 Wolbers, R. (1992) Recent developments in the use of gel formulations for the cleaning of paintings, Restoration 1992, Conference Preprints, IIC, pp. 74–75
14 Introduction to traditional gilding 14.1 Background Gilding describes the practice of applying extremely thin gold leaf to a surface to imitate solid gold or to otherwise imitate the appearance of solid gold. Gilded surfaces were originally viewed under daylight or candle light, the only forms of illumination. They were often embellished with texture that gave variations in reflectivity and added to the overall decorative effect. The European tradition, later exported to the New World, traditionally applied gold leaf using the distinct processes of water gilding and oil gilding. These processes are distinguished by different methods of preparation and application that result in varying surface appearances. This chapter will outline the traditional materials and techniques used to create gilded surfaces on wood as well as giving a brief introduction to the conservation of such surfaces. Gilding is a skill with a strong craft tradition, historically passed from master to apprentice, and was traditionally subject to a great deal of secrecy. There is, as a consequence of this tradition, a wide variation in the preparation of materials and application techniques within this craft. Although the principles of gilding are fairly standardized, gilding practice is not. The information presented in this chapter should be considered a guide to the continuum of practice that constitutes traditional gilding. Techniques to imitate the appearance of solid gold have been used in all cultures that have placed a high value on gold. Using many similar techniques to those used today, the ancient Egyptians, for example, utilized rounded stones and bronze hammers to beat 642 the gold into leaf form, which was laid onto surfaces of gesso and clay (Hatchfield and Newman, 1991). Despite this technical continuity there has been a wide range of stylistic and regional differences in the way gilding has been used as a decorative surface. The context, date, style, country or even region will have a direct bearing on the gilding of an object. As a result a thorough knowledge of historical styles, materials and techniques is essential when trying to reproduce gilding of a particular style or period. The appearance of the gold and groundwork of a sixteenth century Italian icon or altarpiece, for example, is very different to that of a Louis XV console table. The appearance of gilding can vary greatly depending on different treatment of the groundwork, colours of clay and gold, the method of leaf application and treatment of gold after it has been laid. 14.1.1 Water and oil gilding The two basic techniques of gilding onto a wooden substrate are water gilding, which traditionally utilized a collagen glue, and oil gilding, where the gold leaf is adhered to the ground by a mordant, usually an oil-based size. The principle of using thin gold leaf applied to a surface to simulate solid gold is similar in both cases but the materials and techniques used to apply water and oil gilding differ. Water gilding must be laid onto a porous ground, normally gesso, and is a more time-consuming process than oil gilding. It is water soluble and is therefore unsuitable for exterior use. It is primarily, though not exclusively, used on fine furniture and objects. Water gilding can be burnished to a highly
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
Page 626 and 627: use whenever possible and many cons
Page 628 and 629: tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
Page 630 and 631: although slower evaporating solvent
Page 632 and 633: ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
Page 634 and 635: Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
Page 636 and 637: (a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
Page 638 and 639: appearance of paintings, Studies in
Page 640 and 641: American Chemical Society, Washingt
Page 642 and 643: often rely on self-levelling spray
Page 644 and 645: ecoming progressively harder and da
Page 646 and 647: Identifying a historical progressio
Page 648 and 649: normally seen, so that it can be mo
Page 650 and 651: Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
Page 652 and 653: of an overall finishing strategy. I
Page 654 and 655: e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657: (a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659: Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
Page 660 and 661: Thus conservation grade materials m
Page 662 and 663: ing the colour. This may be useful
Page 664 and 665: materials is their photochemical st
Page 666 and 667: (a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
Page 668 and 669: French polishing French polishing d
Page 670 and 671: during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673: applying fresh polish before pullin
Page 674 and 675: the addition of a separate thixotro
Page 678 and 679: eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681: is used for laying gold and silver
Page 682 and 683: wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
Page 684 and 685: necessary to use a size coat as str
Page 686 and 687: however, makes it more difficult to
Page 688 and 689: flutes or other details in the carv
Page 690 and 691: 14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
Page 692 and 693: applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695: Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
Page 696 and 697: 14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
Page 698 and 699: ground would be prepared uniformly
Page 700 and 701: areas, however deep, that have been
Page 702 and 703: 15 Conserving other materials I Thi
Page 704 and 705: Consolidation Powdering or flaking
Page 706 and 707: synthetic materials, such as Paralo
Page 708 and 709: shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
Page 710 and 711: oration and brittleness. The cellul
Page 712 and 713: to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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Page 716 and 717: Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719: of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
Page 720 and 721: gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723: when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725: and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
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The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
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Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
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Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
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Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
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Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
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Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
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(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
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etouching and coating of lacquer ob
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(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
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Extended exposure to polar solvents
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Retouching may involve reproducing
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ethical considerations. Objects tha
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tion will need to be reduced accord
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(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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