Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical cleaning relies on the physical displacement of dirt. It causes no shrinkage or swelling of the surface and, depending on the object, may present a low risk of displaced dirt being absorbed into a porous surface. It requires no toxic chemicals, although dust may be hazardous. Mechanical cleaning techniques include dusting, cleaving, abrasion and dry cleaning. Ultrasonics have been used to clean metal objects and lasers to remove corrosion products and dirt from metals, mineralized layers from stained glass and organic layers from terracotta but neither have found wide application to date in furniture conservation. Strictly speaking, laser cleaning is not mechanical but rather photothermal or photochemical, and affects both the physical and chemical properties of dirt (Cooper, 1998). 11.2.1 Dusting Dust should be removed before undertaking further cleaning (Shelly, 1987). Dust is airborne particulate matter that collects on an object’s surface and is not bound to the substrate or itself. Dust is an aesthetic problem as well as being potentially harmful to the object. Regular dust removal will increase the stability and longevity of objects and their coatings. In some cases the abrasive effect of repeated dusting on delicate decorative surfaces, such as gilded wood, may cause significant damage. Where possible environmental controls should be used to prevent the Principles of cleaning 501 Figure 11.5 Removing dust from a painted and gilded leather panel using a soft bristle brush and low power vacuum cleaner ingress and accumulation of dust. Dusting should pick up and remove dust rather than merely displacing it within the same environment. Dust can be removed using a dusting cloth (e.g. varnished table tops), soft natural bristle brush (marquetry, boulle or gilded surfaces) or vacuum cleaner (thick deposits of dust). Feather dusters are not recommended. Dusting cloths can be evaluated using Perspex to assess whether, after numerous dustings, the dust has been removed, deposits left behind and if the Perspex remains free from scratches. Eighteenth century documents indicate that brushes were commonly used to dust furniture, frames and interior architecture (Balston, 1956). Dust dislodged in this way should be captured with a cloth or vacuum cleaner. A fine nylon mesh stretched over the nozzle can be used to prevent any loose parts being sucked into the vacuum cleaner (Figure 11.5). An established routine of dust removal should be part of general housekeeping practice. 11.2.2 Cleaving Cleaving may be used to remove brittle dirt, metal corrosion products or an unwanted coating from an underlying surface that is undamaged and comparatively strong. Successful cleaving exploits the mechanism that causes layers to flake, that is, strong cohesive properties within a layer combined with weak adhesive properties between layers. This technique avoids the risks associated with solvent or aqueous cleaning.
502 Conservation of Furniture (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) (1) (2) (3) (4) (b) (1) (2) (3) (1) (1) (2) (3) Figure 11.6 Cleaving (a) Ideal conditions for cleaving or ‘pinging’ unwanted material from a surface: (i) (1) scalpel blade; (2) unwanted material has good cohesive properties but is brittle; (3) interface has poor adhesive properties and provides a plane of cleavage; (4) material or surface to be retained has good cohesive properties (strong, hard or tough) (ii) As the scalpel enters, material either side of the blade is compressed and forced outward, whilst material in front of the blade is in tension. A crack develops ahead of the blade (iii) Material either side of the blade is still under compression. The developing crack is diverted along the line of weakness caused by poor adhesion between the unwanted material and the substrate. Tension in the unwanted material is released as the crack develops (iv) The stress caused by scalpel blade is released as a fragment of unwanted material breaks cleanly away from the substrate (b) Unsatisfactory results from cleaving: (i) (1) strong cohesive properties in the unwanted material; (2) strong adhesive interface; (3) weak cohesive properties in substrate; result – no plane of cleavage leads to damaged substrate (ii) (1) lines of weakness in the substrate; result – unexpected damage (iii) (1) weak cohesive properties in unwanted material; (2) strong adhesive interface; (3) strong cohesive properties in substrate; result – residues may leave an unsatisfactory appearance (c) In practice, cleaving material is as complex as the surface itself. The stratigraphy may differ from place to place, the properties of a single layer may vary from place to place, there may be weaknesses at different points in different layers, or unwanted material may have been absorbed into a layer that is to be retained via cracks or porosity (i) (ii) (iii) (c) Wanted Result Result Result Unwanted
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
Page 486 and 487: Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
Page 488 and 489: Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
Page 490 and 491: measure the diagonals across the se
Page 492 and 493: (i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
Page 494 and 495: 10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
Page 496 and 497: microballoons. They may be levelled
Page 498 and 499: Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
Page 500 and 501: as a gap filler in cases where a fa
Page 502 and 503: should be critically evaluated befo
Page 504 and 505: (a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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Page 508 and 509: e progressively tightened over the
Page 510 and 511: Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
Page 512 and 513: (a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
Page 514 and 515: ducing the curves on boulle and mar
Page 516 and 517: similar fabric is stretched across
Page 518 and 519: ures involved in preparing a copy o
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Page 522 and 523: materials, used extensively by scul
Page 524 and 525: making material. Traditional releas
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Page 528 and 529: Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
Page 530 and 531: ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
Page 532 and 533: (a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
Page 534 and 535: Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
Page 538 and 539: When a scalpel is used to pick away
Page 540 and 541: adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
Page 542 and 543: USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545: alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547: R' | R - C O The presence of the c
Page 548 and 549: suppliers. Careful selection of sol
Page 550 and 551: agency within the Department of Lab
Page 552 and 553: There are four stages in the dissol
Page 554 and 555: Figure 11.10 The positions of some
Page 556 and 557: Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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Page 560 and 561: as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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Page 564 and 565: 11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
Page 566 and 567: keep the contact time of both clean
Page 568 and 569: The two primary factors in choosing
Page 570 and 571: Detergents Commercially viable synt
Page 572 and 573: (a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
Page 574 and 575: carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577: Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
Page 578 and 579: constant (k) (at standard temperatu
Page 580 and 581: Conditional stability constant (log
Page 582 and 583: solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
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Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
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The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
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Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
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Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
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Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
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Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
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cation and characterization of the
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may not be representative of the ki
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Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
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that which occurs during the remova
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(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
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Wax has been used many times to inf
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permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
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etouching and coating of lacquer ob
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(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
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Extended exposure to polar solvents
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Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
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tion will need to be reduced accord
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(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
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to worked through the gold leaf slo
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Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
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Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
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Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
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Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
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deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
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textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
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extenders, 145 identification, 187,
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plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
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Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
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epair material selection, 437-9 woo
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(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
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Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
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(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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