Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Table 11.8 Properties of some detergents used in conservation Trade name Structure Type Molecular weight HLB CMC CMC Manufacturer (g/mole: formula, (mM) (wt%) average or estimated) Brij 35 23 ethoxylate lauryl alcohol Non-ionic 1198 16.9 0.06 0.007 Uniqema (ICI) Brij 72 2 ethoxylate stearyl alcohol Non-ionic 358 4.9 < 0.2 < 0.007 Uniqema (ICI) Brij 78 20 ethoxylate stearyl alcohol Non-ionic 1096 15.3 < 0.2 < 0.022 Uniqema (ICI) Ethomeen C12 bis(2-hydroxyethyl) cocoalkylainine Cationic 275–295 12.2 n/a n/a Akzo-Nobel Ethomeen C25 polyoxyethylene (15) cocoalkylamine Cationic 826–909 16.8 n/a n/a Akzo-Nobel Igepal CA-630 octylphenoxy(polyethyleneoxy)(9) ethanol Non-ionic 624 13.4 < 0.2 < 0.013 Rhodia (Rhône Poulenc) Igepal CA-720 octylphenoxy(polyethyleneoxy)(12) ethanol Non-ionic 756 14.6 < 0.2 < 0.015 Rhodia (Rhône Poulenc) Orvus sodium lauryl sulphate Anionic 288.4 40 8 0.231 Procter and Gamble Photo-flo 9,10 ethoxylate octyl phenol Non-ionic 646 14.1 < 0.2 < 0.013 Kodak Surfynol 61 3,5 dimethyl 1-hexyn-3-ol Non-ionic 126 6–7 n/a n/a Air Products Synperonic N polyoxyethylene 8 nonylphenol alcohol Non-ionic 590 12.3 0.085 0.005 Uniqema (ICI) Synperonic 91/6 polyethyleneglycol(6) C9–11 alcohol Non-ionic 418 12.5 0.38 0.016 Uniqema (ICI) Synperonic 91/8 polyethyleneglycol(8) C9–11 alcohol Non-ionic 505 13.9 0.602 0.03 Uniqema (ICI) Tergitol 15-S-9 polyethyleneglycol(9) C12–14 alcohol Non-ionic 584 13.3 0.0958 0.0056 Union Carbide Triton X-100 9–10 ethoxylate nonyl phenol Non-ionic 624 13.5 0.22–0.24 0.015 Union Carbide Triton XL-80N ethoxylated propoxylated C8-10 alcohol Non-ionic 442 12–13 0.41 0.0181 Union Carbide triethanolamine deoxycholate Anionic 523 20 4 0.209 Ingredients from chemical suppliers triethanolamine abietate Anionic 433.7 ~ 8.2 12 0.52 Ingredients from chemical suppliers The detergents listed here have been used in a variety of conservation disciplines. Orvus (sodium lauryl sulphate) is included for comparative purposes and is not recommended for cleaning varnished or decorated surfaces. Ethomeen C12 and C25 are used for the formulation of solvent gels and their use is not recommended for general cleaning applications. Triethanolamine deoxycholate and triethanolamine abietate are used in resin and bile soaps (see section 16.6). Alkyl phenols, such as Igepal CA-630 and 720, Synperonic N and Triton X-100 were phased out of general conservation use in the late 1990s due to environmental and/or health and safety concerns. Alkyl phenols have largely been replaced by linear ethoxylated fatty alcohols, for example Synperonic 91/8, Triton XL-80N and Tergitol 15-S-9. Surfynol 61 is a volatile surfactant (nBuAc 0.44; 1040 seconds to 90% evaporation). It is miscible with hydrocarbon solvents, alcohols and ketones, but only slightly miscible with water (0.9% by wt). It is used in commercial glass cleaning formulations and has been used in some conservation treatments. Vulpex (potassium methylcyclohexyloleate), an anionic detergent, was originally used for the conservation of wall paintings, where its pH of 10.5–11.5 (a result of the addition of potassium hydroxide by the manufacturer) was appropriate. Its high pH makes it unsuitable for cleaning varnished and decorated surfaces. If a detergent is to be used in a conservation treatment, its properties and possible interactions with the object should be carefully considered. For information on these or other detergents and surfactants see section 11.5.4, McCutcheon’s (1994), Ash (1993) and/or contact the manufacturer.
542 Conservation of Furniture (a) (b) HO . O C O . HO C CH2 HO. C CH2 O OH CH 2 CH 2 O C C CH 2 Figure 11.21 Molecular structure of five common chelating agents. The electron donating groups are indicated (.): (a) citric acid; (b) NTA (nitrilotriacetic acid); (c) EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid); (d) DTPA (diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid); (e) HEDTA (N-hydroxyethylenediaminetriacetic acid) O C O C Citric Acid N . N . . . OH OH . CH 2 CH 2 (c) EDTA (d) (e) HO . . O C CH 2 HO C CH2 O N . CH 2 CH 2 N . CH 2 O C O. H DTPA OH HEDTA N . CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N . O C . OH CH2 C OH . O CH2 C OH . O CH2 C OH . CH 2 O CH 2 C O . HO CH2CH2 . N CH2CH2 . N CH2 C HO . CH 2 CH 2 NTA CH 2 C O O .OH C O OH . . OH OH . acid (from which di- and tri-ammonium citrate (DAC, TAC) are derived), and aminocarboxylic acids such as nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and N- (2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediaminetriacetic acid (HEDTA). A third group derived from polyphosphates (e.g. sodium tripolyphosphate or STPP) is no longer used due to concerns about environmental damage. The molecular structure of five chelating agents is illustrated in Figure 11.21. A molecule must have two or more electron donating groups (called ligands) in order to be called a chelating agent. The number of functional groups that participate in chelation is referred to as the co-ordination number. These functional groups can be ionizable groups (e.g. acid or base groups) or neutral groups (such as alcohols and ketones) that have unbonded electrons which can exert weakly attractive forces on metal ions. In order for a molecule to function as a chelator, its structure must allow the formation of a co-ordinated (bonded) structure around a metal ion in solution. Other molecules that have these functional groups but cannot form a ring structure may attract inorganic ions but cannot sequester them in solution. As a general rule divalent metal ions are co-ordinated very strongly to chelating agents. Monovalent ions, such as sodium or potassium, do not form strong co-ordinated bonds with chelating agents and do not interfere with the chelator co-ordinating with other metal ions. This is the reason that sodium salts of chelating agents are often commercially available (e.g. sodium EDTA). Formation constants Both the formation of metal salts (e.g. corrosion products on metals) and chelation are equilibrium reactions. As such, it is possible to assign an equilibrium constant (k) to these reactions. In the case of the formation or dissolution of a salt, the k value represents a proportionality constant. That is, the k value represents the proportion of the concentrations of the dissolved species compared to the starting salt concentration at a standard temperature and pressure and at a one molar starting concentration of metal salt. For example, if the starting reaction is CaCO 3 [ Ca 2+ + CO 3 2– , then the equilibrium
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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Page 528 and 529: Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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Page 532 and 533: (a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
Page 534 and 535: Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
Page 536 and 537: 11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
Page 538 and 539: When a scalpel is used to pick away
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Page 542 and 543: USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545: alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547: R' | R - C O The presence of the c
Page 548 and 549: suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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Page 552 and 553: There are four stages in the dissol
Page 554 and 555: Figure 11.10 The positions of some
Page 556 and 557: Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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Page 560 and 561: as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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Page 564 and 565: 11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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Page 568 and 569: The two primary factors in choosing
Page 570 and 571: Detergents Commercially viable synt
Page 572 and 573: (a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
Page 574 and 575: carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 578 and 579: constant (k) (at standard temperatu
Page 580 and 581: Conditional stability constant (log
Page 582 and 583: solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585: Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
Page 586 and 587: General purpose protease gel 100 ml
Page 588 and 589: Wax pastes have traditionally been
Page 590 and 591: on the application. It has been sug
Page 592 and 593: As with gels formulated from cellul
Page 594 and 595: Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
Page 596 and 597: Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
Page 598 and 599: 12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
Page 600 and 601: Natural materials Wax has been used
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Page 606 and 607: malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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Page 610 and 611: damage when levelling the fill and
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Page 614 and 615: dimensional forms such as curved co
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
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Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753:
acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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