Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra B white oak Quercus alba C American chestnut Castanea dentata D American elm Ulmus americana E American white ash Fraxinus americana F black walnut Juglans nigra G sycamore Platanus occidentalis B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S T U V W Figure 2.8 Photomicrographs of transverse (end-grain) sections of some types of wood commonly found in furniture. H American beech Fagus grandifolia J sugar maple Acer saccharum K black cherry Prunus serotina L yellow birch Betula alleghaniensis M American basswood Tilia americana N quaking aspen Populus tremuloides P African mahogany Khaya spp. Q Central American mahogany Swietenia spp. R teak Tectona grandis S Indian rosewood Dalbergia latifolia T eastern white pine Pinus strobus U eastern Larch (tamarack) Larix laricina V eastern spruce Picea spp. W balsam fir Abies balsamea
70 Conservation of Furniture the analysis, or to make further separation to species, if indeed this is possible. Table 2.1 gives data for selected woods representative of those commonly found in furniture. For each wood a general description is given, with principal identification features and summary data for physical and mechanical properties. Figure 2.8 shows cross-sectional views of the main genera represented in Table 2.1. These photographs enable a general comparison of representative types of hardwoods and softwoods. Macroscopic features that are useful for identification purposes can be observed. Further detailed information is given by Henderson (1960) and by Hoadley (1990). With softwoods, hand lens identification is tentative at best, since for all conifers the bulk of the wood tissue consists mainly of tracheids. Some initial screening can be accomplished by determining the presence or absence of resin canals, the coarseness of texture, the unevenness of grain (texture) caused by earlywood/late-wood contrast, and whether the transition from early-wood to late-wood is gradual or abrupt. This information will lead to educated guesses, but conscientious identification of softwoods requires the microscopic evaluation of radial and tangential sections. Figure 2.8 T–W shows transverse surfaces of selected softwoods commonly found in furniture. For further information see Hoadley (1990). 2.2.6 Microscopic examination Using a cross-section to provide orientation, surfaces can subsequently be split or shaved along the radial or tangential planes. For microscopic examination, tissue sections must be accurately cut along radial, tangential or transverse surfaces using a razor blade or comparably sharp instrument. When working on objects, it is sometimes possible to cut sections from furniture parts directly. In other cases it is more expedient to dissect first a tiny piece from the object, which can then be further prepared as required. Typically, a fragment 3310 mm will be sufficient. To obtain the best results it is normally advisable to soften this initial sample by boiling to enable very thin slices of wood tissue from each of the three principal planes to be taken for microscopic examination. These should normally be approximately 33 mm and as thin as possible. Ideally, the section should be thinner than the diameter of the smallest cells, that is less than 0.020 mm (i.e. 20 μm). It is possible to achieve such thin cuts using a razor blade but more consistently even results can be obtained with a microtome. In reality, sections cut by hand will be variable in thickness, and some portions of the sample will be too thick to show detail. Useful cellular detail will usually be found along thin edges of hand-cut sections. The section is placed on a glass microscope slide, moistened with a drop of water, and then covered with a thin cover glass. When placed on the stage of a standard compound light microscope, the translucent section is illuminated with transmitted light and the cellular detail can be examined at magnification in the range of 100–500. Ideally, the microscope should have facilities for using polarized light as this is useful for identifying crystals (for choice of a suitable instrument see Hoadley, 1990; also Normand, 1972; Core et al., 1979). Samples can be stained or bleached to enhance the microscopic image of the wood section (Blanchette, 1992a; Florian et al., 1990; Grosser, 1977; Walter, 1980). The stain Safranin ‘O’ is commonly used to increase contrast of wood section. Sections can be permanently mounted for safe storage and long term use (Florian et al., 1990). Among the conifers, microscopic details offer the most distinctive differences from one species to another and thus provide the most reliable basis for separation. Among the routinely useful features are the height and width of the rays, the types of ray cells present, the shape and number of cell-wall pits (voids in the cell walls connecting adjacent cells), the smoothness of the cell walls, the presence and colour of contents of the cells, or spiral thickenings in the tracheids. Such detail is often quick and easy to see and evaluate. For example, among the pines, the cell walls of ray tracheids are smooth in the soft pines (such as eastern white pine, Pinus strobus), providing a certain separation from the hard pines (such as Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris), which have dentate ray tracheids with jagged walls (see Figure 2.5b). As another example, the characteristic spiral thickenings observed in yew, Taxus spp. (Figure 2.9) quickly separate this wood from other conifers found in furniture.
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
Page 54 and 55: Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
Page 56 and 57: furniture by contrast was generally
Page 58 and 59: Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
Page 60 and 61: One process of construction that co
Page 62 and 63: eforms in education (1870 Elementar
Page 64 and 65: chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
Page 66 and 67: Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
Page 68 and 69: Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
Page 70 and 71: major feature, and confirmed the se
Page 72 and 73: Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
Page 74 and 75: Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
Page 76 and 77: The range of finishes has increased
Page 78 and 79: Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
Page 80 and 81: Specific texts relating to trade or
Page 82 and 83: Part 2 Materials
Page 84 and 85: 2 Wood and wooden structures It is
Page 86 and 87: many properties, such as increasing
Page 88 and 89: ant consideration in the selection
Page 90 and 91: 2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
Page 92 and 93: may be gradual in some woods, abrup
Page 94 and 95: PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
Page 96 and 97: the United States. In the UK, the T
Page 98 and 99: Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
Page 100 and 101: Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
Page 102 and 103: Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
Page 106 and 107: Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
Page 108 and 109: In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
Page 110 and 111: Figure 2.12 A representative portio
Page 112 and 113: depending upon species, whether sap
Page 114 and 115: 0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
Page 116 and 117: Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
Page 118 and 119: mechanical effects of repeated shri
Page 120 and 121: wood member, for example, a block o
Page 122 and 123: The strength of wood in compression
Page 124 and 125: er of defects and repairs, and the
Page 126 and 127: unwanted movement in the joint is r
Page 128 and 129: 2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
Page 130 and 131: Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
Page 132 and 133: 3 Upholstery materials and structur
Page 134 and 135: Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
Page 136 and 137: Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
Page 138 and 139: it over a blunt metal blade or by p
Page 140 and 141: and dried to remove unwanted flesh
Page 142 and 143: Rattan or cane The cane that is use
Page 144 and 145: wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
Page 146 and 147: The surfaces of both woven and non-
Page 148 and 149: (Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
Page 150 and 151: was not until the early nineteenth
Page 152 and 153: (a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
Page 154 and 155:
The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
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Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
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The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
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Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
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Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
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Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
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The principles outlined above for s
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Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
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cation and characterization of the
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may not be representative of the ki
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Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
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that which occurs during the remova
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(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
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In the past, abrasives such as rott
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Wax has been used many times to inf
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permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
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etouching and coating of lacquer ob
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(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
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Extended exposure to polar solvents
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Retouching may involve reproducing
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ethical considerations. Objects tha
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tion will need to be reduced accord
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(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
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to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
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Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
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Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
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Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
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Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
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Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
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deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
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textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
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extenders, 145 identification, 187,
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plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
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Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
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epair material selection, 437-9 woo
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(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
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Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
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(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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