Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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agency within the Department of Labor (www.osha.gov/). In addition, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) produces recommended exposure limits (RELs), whilst the American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) produces threshold limit values (TLVs) (www.acgih.org). All three standards (PELs, RELs and TLVs) may be encountered in US material safety data sheets. The lower the PEL or TLV, the more toxic the chemical. Substances with an MEL, or an OEL or TLV lower than 200 ppm should be avoided where possible. Safety precautions, such as the use of a fume cupboard or portable solvent cabinet, should be taken if their use cannot be avoided. Proper control of risks to health and safety is essential. The use of some solvents traditionally used in conservation and restoration has been curtailed because of acute and chronic health risks. Aromatic hydrocarbons such as xylene and toluene, for example, may clean some surfaces well but pose a health hazard. Whilst exposure limits or TLVs are useful, they must be considered alongside other factors such as evaporation rate to find the solvent that presents the least risk to the user. Risk can be defined as hazard multiplied by exposure. Conservators wishing to assess the relative risk of different solvents must compare the hazard (represented by the OEL, PEL or TLV in ppm) in combination with exposure (evaporation rate, in this case using nBuAc as the standard). In the case of exposure limits, the hazard is inversely proportional to the limit, that is, the lower the OEL, the greater the hazard. Many people prefer to work in whole numbers rather than fractions, so for easier comparison, multiply the answer by 100. 1 risk = exposure limit (ppm) evaporation rate (nBuAc) 100 The larger the resulting number, the greater the risk to the conservator from inhaling fumes. Example 1 Compare two solvents with the same OEL (100 ppm). Solvent A has an evaporation rate of 8, whilst solvent B is a faster-evaporating solvent with an evaporation rate of 16 (nBuAc=100): Principles of cleaning 515 Comparative risk of Solvent A = 1/100 8 = 0.08 100 = 8 Comparative risk of Solvent B = 1/100 16 = 0.16 100 = 16 Answer: Solvent B presents twice the comparative risk. Example 2 Compare two solvents with different OELs and different evaporation rates. Solvent C has an OEL of 100 ppm and an evaporation rate of 76 (nBuAc = 100), whilst solvent D has an OEL of 40 and an evaporation rate of 15 (nBuAc = 100): Comparative risk of Solvent C = 1/100 76 = 0.76 100 = 76 Comparative risk of Solvent D = 1/40 15 = 0.375 100 = 37.5 Answer: Solvent C presents twice the comparative risk. In most cases the main danger from solvents is from inhalation of fumes. It is worth noting that many commonly used solvents are absorbed through unbroken skin. In such cases appropriate gloves are essential, in addition to precautions such as good ventilation or extraction. General principles of the control of risks to health and safety are discussed in Chapter 9. Flammability Flammability is defined in terms of flash point (FP). The flash point is the lowest temperature at which the concentration of vapour immediately above the surface of a liquid is sufficient to form an explosive mixture with air and be ignited by a flame. In the UK three grades of flammability are recognized – extremely flammable (FP 0 °C and less), highly flammable (FP 0 °C to 21 °C) and flammable (FP 21 to 55 °C), of which only the first two require hazard labels. 11.3.3 Solubility Process of dissolution A true solution is a homogeneous molecular mixture of two or more substances of dissimilar molecular structure. The term is usually applied to solutions of solids in liquids but can equally well be applied to other systems.
516 Conservation of Furniture (a) (b) When a solid material has dissolved in a liquid, the molecules of the liquid separate all the molecules of the solid. The dissolved material, the solute, can be recovered in unaltered chemical form from the solvent. For example, if the liquid evaporates the solute molecules will coalesce into a solid material, unaltered in chemical form.
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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Page 502 and 503: should be critically evaluated befo
Page 504 and 505: (a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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Page 508 and 509: e progressively tightened over the
Page 510 and 511: Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
Page 512 and 513: (a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
Page 514 and 515: ducing the curves on boulle and mar
Page 516 and 517: similar fabric is stretched across
Page 518 and 519: ures involved in preparing a copy o
Page 520 and 521: and capture a high degree of detail
Page 522 and 523: materials, used extensively by scul
Page 524 and 525: making material. Traditional releas
Page 526 and 527: The compo can be rolled out into a
Page 528 and 529: Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
Page 530 and 531: ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
Page 532 and 533: (a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
Page 534 and 535: Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
Page 536 and 537: 11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
Page 538 and 539: When a scalpel is used to pick away
Page 540 and 541: adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
Page 542 and 543: USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545: alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547: R' | R - C O The presence of the c
Page 548 and 549: suppliers. Careful selection of sol
Page 552 and 553: There are four stages in the dissol
Page 554 and 555: Figure 11.10 The positions of some
Page 556 and 557: Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
Page 558 and 559: ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
Page 560 and 561: as odourless mineral spirits or whi
Page 562 and 563: effective in breaking down coatings
Page 564 and 565: 11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
Page 566 and 567: keep the contact time of both clean
Page 568 and 569: The two primary factors in choosing
Page 570 and 571: Detergents Commercially viable synt
Page 572 and 573: (a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
Page 574 and 575: carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577: Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
Page 578 and 579: constant (k) (at standard temperatu
Page 580 and 581: Conditional stability constant (log
Page 582 and 583: solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585: Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
Page 586 and 587: General purpose protease gel 100 ml
Page 588 and 589: Wax pastes have traditionally been
Page 590 and 591: on the application. It has been sug
Page 592 and 593: As with gels formulated from cellul
Page 594 and 595: Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
Page 596 and 597: Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
Page 598 and 599: 12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739:
(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
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Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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