Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Properties, Chemistry and Preservation, Advances in Chemistry Series 225, American Chemical Society Rodd, J. (1976) Repairing and Restoring Antique Furniture, David & Charles Rodwell, D.F.G. (1984) Ageing of wood adhesives – loss in strength with time, in Building Research Establishment Information Paper, BRE Roelofs, W. (1994) Coloured mordants on a set of Dutch marquetry furniture from the late 18th century, in Contributions of the Central Research Laboratory to the Field of Conservation and Restoration, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Rogers, J.C. (1959) English Furniture, Country Life/Sterling Rotter, M. (1979) Alte Möbel Erkennen und Restaurieren, Julius Hoffmann Verlag Sadoh, T. (1967) The dimensional changes of wood during polyethylene glycol treatment and some elastic properties of the treated wood, Journal of the Japan Wood Research Society, 13 (2), April, 41–5 Schneider, M.H. (1972) Wood-coating interactions – a review, Journal of Paint Technology, 44 (564), 108–10 Skeist, I. (1962) Handbook of Adhesives, Van Nostrand Reinhold Thornton, J. (1985) Compo: the history and technology of ‘plastic’ compositions, in AIC Wooden Artifacts Group, Conference Papers Thornton, J. (1991a) Minding the gap: filling losses in gilded and decorated surfaces, in Gilding and Surface Decoration, Conference Postprints, UKIC Thornton, J. (1991b) Replicating stamped brasses, Fine Woodworking, 86 (Jan/Feb), pp. 86–7 Thornton, J. (1998a) A brief history and review of the early practice and materials of gap-filling in the West, JAIC, 37, 3–22 Thornton, J. (1998b) The use of dyes and coloured varnishes in wood polychromy, Painted Wood: History and Conservation, Symposium Proceedings, Getty Conservation Institute, pp. 226–41 Tout, R.F. (1992) Wood adhesives – joints for furniture, in D.E. Packham (ed.) Adhesion and Adhesives, Longman Triboulot, M-C. (1999a) Studies into the properties of polyethylene glycol. (PEG) in furniture conservation, in P. van Duin, D. van Loosdrecht and D. Wheeler (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Wood and Furniture Conservation, Rijksmuseum/VeRes, Amsterdam, pp. 23–9 Principles of conserving and repairing wooden furniture 493 Triboulot, M-C. (1999b) Improving the adhesion between wood and brass, Conservation News, 69, UKIC, 30–32 Umney, N. (1993) The conservation of a Louis XIVth boulle marquetry bracket clock, The Conservator, 17, UKIC, 61–8 van Duin, P., Van Loosdrecht, D. and Wheeler, D. (eds) Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Wood and Furniture Conservation, Rijksmuseum/VeRes, Amsterdam van Thiel, P.J.J. and de Bruyn Kops, C.J. (1995, trans McCormick), Framing in the Golden Age, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam/Waanders Uitgevers, Zwolle Von Endt, D.W. and Baker, M.T. (1991) The chemistry of filled animal glue systems, in D. Bigelow et al. (eds), Gilded Wood: Conservation and History, Sound View Press Wackernagel, R. (1978) The restoration of boulle marquetry at the Bavarian National Museum, in Conservation of Wood in Painting and the Decorative Arts, Conference Preprints, IIC Wallstrim, L. and Lindberg, K.A.H. (1995) Wood surface stabilisation with polyethyleneglycol PEG, Wood Science and Technology, 29 (2), 109–19 Walton, H. (1976) Home and Workshop Guide to Sharpening, Popular Science/Harper and Row Walton, J.A. (1979) Woodwork in Theory and Practice, 6th edn, Australasian Publishing Co. Wang, Y. and Schniewind, A.P. (1985) Consolidation of deteriorated wood with soluble resins, JAIC, 24(2), 77–91 Ware, G.W. (1989) The Pesticide Book, Thomson Waters, P.H. (1983) A review of the moulding and casting materials and techniques in use at the palaeontology laboratory, British Museum (Natural History), The Conservator, 7, 37–43 Wetherall, J. (1991) History and techniques of composition, in S. Budden (ed.), Gilding and Surface Decoration, Conference Preprints, UKIC Weygers, A.G. (1973) The Making of Tools, Van Nostrand Reinhold Wilmering, A.W. (1998) A renaissance studiolo from the ducal palace in Gubbio, in K. Dardes and A. Roth (eds), The Structural Conservation of Panel Paintings, Getty Conservation Institute Wilson, G. (1972) Boulle, The Journal of the Furniture History Society, Vol. VIII
11 Principles of cleaning The cleaning of furniture has always been an important part of housekeeping and the restorer’s trade (Hale, 1853). In the past, a variety of concoctions for cleaning furniture have been recommended, ranging from a dampened cloth to ground glass or stale beer and vinegar. Few were selected with any degree of specificity to the nature of a particular surface. The conservator’s objective is to balance the removal of unwanted material from an object with the preservation of the varnish or decorated (e.g. painted, japanned, gilded or lacquered) surface. This chapter identifies options for the cleaning of varnished and decorated surfaces on furniture and wooden objects. Although the theory of cleaning is discussed under four separate categories (mechanical, solvent, chemical and aqueous cleaning), in practice these approaches are often combined. The theory and practice of cleaning is central to much conservation research and it is essential to keep abreast of current developments. The term cleaning often has a fluid meaning in conservation. The term cleaning refers to the removal of unwanted accretions, such as dirt, which obscure a surface. In the context of decorated surfaces, other treatments may also be called cleaning but it is more accurate to refer to them as ‘removal of varnish’ or ‘removal of overpaint’. Surfaces are important because they contain much of the value of the original object. This value may be aesthetic, historical, informational, spiritual, monetary or a combination of these. Varnished or decorated surfaces on furniture are very vulnerable to damage. They are usually thin, subject to the greatest wear and tear in use, and are at the front line of environmental change. It is convenient to 494 discuss surfaces separately from the wooden substrate because they are manufactured using different skills and techniques to those usually associated with cabinetmaking and because, although different in appearance, decorated surfaces share a similar fundamental structure. It must be remembered, however, that surface and substrate form an integrated whole and often in practice cannot be treated independently. Many defects such as flaking paint and gesso, for example, have their origin in the movement or chemistry of the underlying structure. Coatings can be responsible for unequal moisture movements in wood and can lead to warps, cracks and splits, which in turn result in damage to the varnish or decorative layers. Structural treatment of the wooden substrate is often constrained by the presence of coatings and vice versa. Up until the twentieth century, the range of binding materials that were included in decorative surfaces was comparatively small. Materials used to create decorative surfaces on furniture include not only those found in other disciplines such as easel painting and polychrome sculpture but materials derived from a vernacular tradition, such as the use of beer as a binding media in simulated wood grain. The range of possible constituents of decorative surfaces has vastly increased in the twentieth century, particularly after 1945. Using painted surfaces as an example, not only have new materials such as alkyd resins and acrylics come into wide use but a huge range of materials such as thickeners and gelling agents, biocides, dispersion aids, UV absorbers, flame retardants and corrosion inhibitors may be added (see, for example, Rothenberg, 1978). These materials will complicate analysis and affect the solubility
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
Page 478 and 479: (a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
Page 480 and 481: Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
Page 482 and 483: (a) (b) Principles of conserving an
Page 484 and 485: Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
Page 486 and 487: Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
Page 488 and 489: Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
Page 490 and 491: measure the diagonals across the se
Page 492 and 493: (i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
Page 494 and 495: 10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
Page 496 and 497: microballoons. They may be levelled
Page 498 and 499: Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
Page 500 and 501: as a gap filler in cases where a fa
Page 502 and 503: should be critically evaluated befo
Page 504 and 505: (a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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Page 508 and 509: e progressively tightened over the
Page 510 and 511: Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
Page 512 and 513: (a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
Page 514 and 515: ducing the curves on boulle and mar
Page 516 and 517: similar fabric is stretched across
Page 518 and 519: ures involved in preparing a copy o
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Page 522 and 523: materials, used extensively by scul
Page 524 and 525: making material. Traditional releas
Page 526 and 527: The compo can be rolled out into a
Page 530 and 531: ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
Page 532 and 533: (a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
Page 534 and 535: Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
Page 536 and 537: 11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
Page 538 and 539: When a scalpel is used to pick away
Page 540 and 541: adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
Page 542 and 543: USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545: alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547: R' | R - C O The presence of the c
Page 548 and 549: suppliers. Careful selection of sol
Page 550 and 551: agency within the Department of Lab
Page 552 and 553: There are four stages in the dissol
Page 554 and 555: Figure 11.10 The positions of some
Page 556 and 557: Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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Page 560 and 561: as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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Page 564 and 565: 11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
Page 566 and 567: keep the contact time of both clean
Page 568 and 569: The two primary factors in choosing
Page 570 and 571: Detergents Commercially viable synt
Page 572 and 573: (a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
Page 574 and 575: carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577: Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753:
acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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