Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

98 Conservation of Furniture
For purposes of clarity, upholstered structures
are normally described sequentially from
the frame to the top surface. The first layer on
a frame may be a web, a base fabric or a combination
of the two to form a continuous surface
upon which the rest of the upholstery is
built. The last layer on a frame is usually called
the top cover or the show cover (including trim
if used). The layers between the base and the
top are called fills and filling covers.
There may be a single fill, or multiple fills.
Where there are several fillings these are usually
encapsulated by a fabric which separates
one from another. For simplicity, the fills are
numbered from the frame. The first layer above
the base is called the first fill and the fabric
which covers this is called the first fill cover. It
is rare to find more than three types of filling
layers on a single unit. The layers may be
shaped by ties or stitching (Figure 3.2). The
layers closest to the frame are the firmest (for
shape) while those closest to the user are the
softest (for comfort). The final filling layer,
called a skimmer layer, may be very thin.
Each layer within an upholstered structure
has a function. The material chosen to fulfil
that function may be selected because it best
meets the needs of the function, e.g. ability to
take up or resist shape deformation, because
the material is traditionally used in that position
or for economic reasons. Any of these
considerations may apply to a given structure.
It is entirely possible that a seat may be made
out of best quality materials throughout but in
reality qualities within an upholstered structure
usually vary. Quality may be related to the
material type (for example linen would be a
more stable and more expensive choice for a
filling cover than a jute product) or to the
weight of the material (for example, closely
woven jute would be more expensive than
loosely woven jute).
An awareness of the qualities of upholstery
materials should be developed so that
informed judgements can be made about what
lies between a top covering and base layer in
an upholstered structure. However, one should
avoid making assumptions. For example,
although in conventional upholstery from a
particular period it is common to find cotton
fabrics as a layer directly below top coverings,
this has not always been so. It is therefore only
after examination that the names of specific
materials should be ascribed to each layer
within the structure.
For the purpose of explanation, it is convenient
to describe seat construction but the
same techniques are employed for arms and
backs. The differences are marginal, usually
being of horizontal or vertical plane and of
strength of materials. For example, a sprung
back is constructed in a similar way to a
sprung seat but the tacks, web, springs and
twine may all be of a lighter quality because
they do not bear the same loads as a seat.
3.1.2 Historical development
The sling seat is one of the simpler types and
has been known since the beginning of upholstery
in ancient times. It consists of a single
layer of sturdy material such as leather
stretched across and attached to a (usually
wooden) framework by means of tacks or
dome headed nails. This type of seat was used
on folding chairs and stools and was usually
provided with cushions for added comfort.
Some sling style seats were quilted, an early
form of layered upholstery. The seat and back
of a late sixteenth century example in the collection
of the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York (41.100.321) (Figure 3.1) consists of
a layer of leather and a layer of linen stitched
together in a scale pattern in which the individual
scales are padded out with hair stuffed
through holes in the linen layer.
The first fixed upholstery types, that is upholstery
which is attached to a rigid rather than a
folding structure, are the simple dome and
boxed edge types of the late sixteenth and early
seventeenth centuries. These consist basically of
pin, or boxed edge, cushions stuffed with one
type of loose filling such as animal hair or down,
attached to a wooden framework by means of
tacks and dome-headed nails. Due to lack of
structure across the base and sides of the upholstered
seat, both of these simple types easily
became misshapen during use. The introduction
of narrow bands of coarsely woven linen or
hemp stretched across, and tacked to, the seat
base provided a sturdier foundation to take the
weight of the sitter and the overlying layers of
upholstery. Early attempts to maintain an even
distribution of upholstery were achieved with a
form of quilting (Figure 3.1), though deep structures
were not possible using this technique.