Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Plastics and polymers, coatings and binding media, adhesives and consolidants 163 erides of various fatty acids. A triglyceride has the general structure shown in Figure 4.10. Each molecule consists of a backbone of glycerol in which each of the three hydroxyl groups present in the original alcohol molecule is joined via ester linkages to a fatty acid chain. There is no fundamental difference between oils and fats, the distinction being solely one of melting point. Oils are liquid at 20 °C while fats are solid at this temperature. As with the other physical properties of this class of material, this reflects the types and proportions of the fatty acids which make up the triglyceride. Fatty acids containing double bonds are termed unsaturated, those which do not are termed saturated. Most plant oils contain a large proportion of low melting point unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids and are liquid. In many animal fats a higher proportion of higher melting point saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic and stearic acid, is present leading to a solid or semi-solid state at room temperature. Certain oils, which have the property of forming tough elastic films when exposed to the air in thin layers, are classed as drying oils. They include linseed, walnut, poppy and tung oils, among others. The drying ability of these oils increases as the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids present increases and is often expressed as the iodine number of the oil. Iodine values of drying oils range from about 120–200. Drying oils contain a substantial proportion of fatty acids with (at least) three double bonds. Non-drying oils, including olive oil, castor oil and almond oil, will thicken at elevated temperature but do not H 2C—OH 2HC—OH H 2C—OH one glycerol molecule + + O HO—C—R1 O HO—C—R2 O HO—C—R3 three fatty acid molecules O H2C—O—C—R1 O 2HC—O—C—R2 O H2C—O—C—R3 one triglyceride molecule Figure 4.10 One glycerol molecule combined with three fatty acid molecules produces one triglyceride molecule, where R 1 , R 2 and R 3 may be different fatty acids dry to a skin even with long exposure to the air. They have iodine numbers in the range 80–100 and their triglycerides contain predominantly fatty acids having only a single double bond in each molecule. Linseed oil, the most important of the drying oils, comes from seeds of flax (Linum usitatissimum). The best is cold pressed. The oil may be refined with acid, alkali, brine or by mechanical means. Alkaline refined oils have are considered by Mayer (1981) to be the best choice because of their colour stability. The oil may subsequently be bleached by sunlight or by chemical methods. Linseed oil consists of mixed triglycerides of linolenic, linoleic, oleic and stearic acids with small amounts of other acids and up to about 1.5% of unsaponifiable matter (i.e. material which cannot be reacted with alkali to form a soap) (Figure 4.11). It has an iodine value of 170–195. Linseed oil is used for grinding oil colours and as an ingredient of paint media, when it is used alone or in a wide variety of emulsions and mixtures with egg, resins and varnishes (Massey, 1967). It is also found as an important or principal ingredient in oil-gold size, gilders’ composition, grain fillers, furniture reviver, glaziers’ putty, plasticine, linoleum and oil cloth. When exposed to the air, linseed oil reacts with oxygen and at a normal temperature becomes tacky (to a stage suitable for oil gilding) in three to five days. The mechanism by which drying oils form complex, crosslinked structures involves the formation of peroxides and free-radical polymerization. It is clearly summarized by Bentley (1998) and by Mills and White (1987), though aspects of the process remain incompletely understood. The oxidation period is greatly shortened by heat and the presence of salts of certain metals such as lead, manganese or cobalt. The addition of 1% cobalt, for instance, reduces the drying time by a factor of seven. Such compounds are functionally described as siccatives or driers. Lead compounds such as lead acetate and carbonate had the greatest historic importance. Driers such as the resinates or lineolates of cobalt, zinc and manganese are more recent. Boiled oils – drying oils that have been heated at around 150 °C with various driers – are used mainly for industrial paints and varnishes including enamels and for oil size used for adhering metal leaves in oil gilding. By varying
164 Conservation of Furniture H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H HOOC 1—C 2—C 3—C 4—C 5—C 6—C 7—C 8—C 9C 10—C 11—C 12 C 13—C 14—C 15 C 16—C 17—C 18—H H H H H H H H H H H H H (a) H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H HOOC 1—C 2—C 3—C 4—C 5—C 6—C 7—C 8—C 9C 10—C 11—C 12 C 13—C 14—C 15—C 16—C 17—C 18—H H H H H H H H H H H H H H (b) H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H HOOC 1—C 2—C 3—C 4—C 5—C 6—C 7—C 8—C 9C 10—C 11—C 12—C 13—C 14—C 15—C 16—C 17—C 18—H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H (c) H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H HOOC 1—C 2—C 3—C 4—C 5—C 6—C 7—C 8—C 9—C 10—C 11—C 12—C 13—C 14—C 15—C 16—C 17—C 18—H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H (d) Figure 4.11 Major fatty acids components of linseed oil (a) 48–60% linolenic acid (9,12,15 octadecatrienoic acid), a polyunsaturated fatty acid (b) 14–19% linoleic (9,12 octadecadiennoic acid), a polyunsaturated fatty acid (c) 14–30% oleic acid (9-octadecenoic acid), a monounsaturated fatty acid (d) 3–6% stearic acid (octadecanoic acid), a saturated fatty acid the amount of drier and the length of the heating period, the oxidation period and thus the drying time of the oil can be varied. Oil gold size is available with drying times between 3 and 24 hours. Various driers speed up different stages of polymerization. Therefore, combinations of driers often have a dramatic effect. Certain classes of chemical compounds, notably the phenols, have an inhibitory effect on the drying of oil films. Phenols present in tars and bituminous earths may therefore explain the poor drying of oil paint films containing carbon black or Vandyke brown. Films formed from oil alone are slow drying, soft, have poor gloss and relatively poor water resistance. Highly pigmented oil films overcome some of these disadvantages but oils are frequently mixed with natural or synthetic resins to improve hardness and gloss. Resins decrease drying time, harden the film and improve gloss but reduce flexibility. The weight ratio of oil to resin is called the oil length: 3–5 parts of oil to 1 of resin is described as long oil, 1.5–3:1 as medium oil and 0.5–1.5:1 as short oil. Long oil varnishes have the slowest drying but the best outdoor durability because the oil contributes the necessary flexibility. Polymerized linseed oil films become progressively more resistant to solvent action with time and also tend to darken. Their low solubility can be an advantage during surface cleaning or removal of varnish or over paint but should be remembered when using revivers or similar preparations that may leave an oil residue on a surface where none was originally intended. Dried oil-based films remain prone to leaching and swelling by solvents. Egg yolk contains approximately one-third lipids, as opposed to egg white in which lipids are absent. The lipids in egg are made up of triglycerides (65%), phospholipids (29%) and cholesterol (5.2%). Phospholipids consist of triglycerides in which one of the fatty acid ester groups is substituted by a phosphatide group
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
Page 148 and 149: (Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
Page 150 and 151: was not until the early nineteenth
Page 152 and 153: (a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
Page 154 and 155: The ability of elastomers to be mou
Page 156 and 157: include polysaccharide gums such as
Page 158 and 159: Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
Page 160 and 161: Plastics and polymers, coatings and
Page 166 and 167: Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
Page 168 and 169: Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
Page 200 and 201: CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
Page 204 and 205: (c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
Page 212 and 213: Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
Page 230 and 231: Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
Page 232 and 233: (a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
Page 234 and 235: Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
Page 236 and 237: In walrus ivory an outer primary de
Page 238 and 239: (a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
Page 240 and 241: Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
Page 242 and 243: tive applications. Metal tools have
Page 244 and 245: e preferred by hand smiths until it
Page 246 and 247: Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
Page 528 and 529:
Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
Page 534 and 535:
Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
Page 536 and 537:
11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
Page 542 and 543:
USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545:
alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547:
R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
Page 552 and 553:
There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
Page 564 and 565:
11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
Page 568 and 569:
The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
Page 572 and 573:
(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
Page 574 and 575:
carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577:
Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585:
Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
Page 586 and 587:
General purpose protease gel 100 ml
Page 588 and 589:
Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
Page 594 and 595:
Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
Page 598 and 599:
12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
Page 608 and 609:
of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
Page 614 and 615:
dimensional forms such as curved co
Page 616 and 617:
(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
Page 620 and 621:
colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
Page 630 and 631:
although slower evaporating solvent
Page 632 and 633:
ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
Page 634 and 635:
Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
Page 644 and 645:
ecoming progressively harder and da
Page 646 and 647:
Identifying a historical progressio
Page 648 and 649:
normally seen, so that it can be mo
Page 650 and 651:
Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
Page 654 and 655:
e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657:
(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659:
Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
Page 664 and 665:
materials is their photochemical st
Page 666 and 667:
(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
Page 668 and 669:
French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673:
applying fresh polish before pullin
Page 674 and 675:
the addition of a separate thixotro
Page 676 and 677:
Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
Page 678 and 679:
eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681:
is used for laying gold and silver
Page 682 and 683:
wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
Page 684 and 685:
necessary to use a size coat as str
Page 686 and 687:
however, makes it more difficult to
Page 688 and 689:
flutes or other details in the carv
Page 690 and 691:
14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
Page 692 and 693:
applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695:
Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
Page 706 and 707:
synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719:
of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723:
when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725:
and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727:
(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737:
into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739:
(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753:
acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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