Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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synthetic materials, such as Paraloid B72, or acrylic emulsions or dispersions, in low concentrations (2–5%). Current literature on the treatment of matte paint should be consulted in cases where there is a high pigment volume concentration and a comparatively weak bond between the paint and ivory. Inks, sometimes found on ivory from the Indian subcontinent and the Far East, may be soluble in water or white spirit and require a cautious approach. Coatings Ivory has the ability to take a high polish. In cases where ivory is undecorated, a thin microcrystalline wax layer is generally sufficient as a coating. LaFontaine and <strong>Wood</strong> (1982) found Cosmolloid 80H was a more effective barrier to fluctuations in RH than Renaissance wax. In some cases varnish may be necessary to match original material. Antler Antler has often been incorporated into furniture with minimal change from its natural appearance. In most cases surface finishes were not used. If dusting with a brush is insufficient, dry cleaning methods (section 11.2.4) or water with a drop of detergent may remove accretions of dirt, though care should be taken not to flood the surface. The uneven surface often found on antler may require the use of a medium-hard stiff brush. White spirit may be used to remove greasy material. Repair and replacement Cracks running along the length of the antler are not uncommon, particularly on the tynes. These may be filled using a bulked adhesive though it is essential that the fill material is flexible. Splits in antler may widen and curl away from the axis. This may be remedied by steaming and binding. Direct application of steam, which may be done in situ, softens the antler and allows the split component to be bound closed. When the antler has cooled and dried, usually within 24 hours, the split is then adhered. Losses are usually replaced with antler, which may be acquired from venison producers. Alternatives include wood or casting replacement pieces. The hollow core requires the use of a fitted dowel to attach the replace- Conserving other materials I 671 ment. The dowel and adhesive should be reversible and compatible with original and replacement material. The dowel may be made to fit the hollow in the antler, or the hollow may be filled and the dowel pushed into place or the fill drilled after it has dried. A tinted wax may be applied if a coating is necessary, though in most cases antler is left unfinished. 15.1.2 Turtleshell and horn Tortoiseshell is actually from marine turtles, particularly the Hawksbill turtle, and in the following section is therefore referred to by the more accurate term turtleshell. Turtleshell and horn are hygroscopic materials. The combined effects of photochemical degradation and accretions of dirt leads to loss of gloss as they age. As with many other surfaces and materials associated with furniture, turtleshell and horn may have been treated with oil in the past. Degradation of such oils often contributes to a poor appearance. Horn may be prone to delaminate in conditions of low RH, though this problem may also be associated with over-processing at the time of manufacture. Cleaning Surface dirt is usually effectively removed using a slightly dampened swab, whilst white spirit may be used to remove waxy accretions. Consolidation Loose turtleshell or horn that is not completely detached may be consolidated using fresh slightly thinned animal glue, rabbit skin glue or fish glue. If pieces are sufficiently loose, a warmed artist’s palette knife may assist, otherwise it will be necessary to use a syringe or to gently massage the loose veneer to draw the adhesive underneath. Bubbles in turtleshell are particularly common in the thin shell used on nineteenth century pieces. Fresh glue may be worked under the bubble and then cramped down. If the original glue is not severely degraded, in some cases a combination of water and methylated spirits (3:1) may be sufficient to reactivate it. In cases where the paper used under the turtleshell has delaminated, it may be consolidated with isinglass or another suitable adhesive. Turtleshell may become
672 Conservation of Furniture embrittled with age and it may be necessary to soften old glue with water or a Laponite gel (see under section 11.6.2) to prevent fracturing the edges of adjacent turtleshell when the glue is removed. In some cases turtleshell or horn may have been applied over a gesso-type base. This may require consolidation with isinglass, a thinned glue size or Paraloid B72 (c.5% in a slower evaporating solvent such as xylene) before horn or shell is readhered. Turtleshell and horn may have partially delaminated. Some conservators have consolidated delaminating turtleshell with thinned animal/hide glue or other saturating adhesive and pinched cramping pressure. Horn that has delaminated may be treated in the following manner. Flat pieces (i.e. not curved or moulded) may be detached from the object and immersed in water just below boiling point, softened and then transferred to a press, using a blotting paper interface to absorb excess moisture. Horn up to 2 mm thick may require immersion for ten to fifteen minutes. Soft horn, such as cow horn, requires pinch pressure only in the press as excess pressure may cause the horn to spread and increase its surface area. Stiffer horn, such as black or brown buffalo horn, may require more pressure. In good conditions, i.e. warm and around 50% RH, the horn will be dry after about forty-eight hours. When dry, it may be removed from the press and a low viscosity adhesive touched to the edge of lamella. The adhesive is drawn by capillary pressure between the delaminated sections. The horn is then placed between Melinex/Mylar, placed in the press and pinch pressure applied and then released. Excess adhesive is removed from the horn and the Melinex/Mylar and the horn replaced in the press until the adhesive has dried. Replacing losses Hawksbill turtle was the major source of the turtleshell found on historic furniture. Although both the hawksbill and green turtle are protected species, farmed green turtle can provide a legitimate source of shell when this is required for replacing losses, without endangering the survival of turtles in the wild. The Cayman Island embassy may be contacted for details of such turtle farms and shell. Hawksbill shell is very thermoplastic and could be heat welded or moulded around compound shapes. The shell of the green turtle is less thermoplastic and less transparent. Freshly killed turtleshell was prepared for use by immersion in hot water. The shell may be cramped flat or shaped after sufficient immersion and will maintain a given shape after it has cooled. It may be thicknessed and surface faults removed by planing, scraping and sanding. The horn of cattle is most frequently used for replacing lost horn. The tip and base are cut away and the central tubular section cut down the side to allow horn to be opened up. It is flattened using heat and pressure. Horn has a laminate structure and it is possible, though difficult, to cleave away successive individual layers to reduce the thickness. If this is not possible the horn must be filed or abraded to thickness. Horn is not usually pale or clear and the traditional method of preparing it involved covering the surface with a layer of tallow or animal fat and heating it to around 200 °C followed by heavy pressure in a press. The surface was then buffed and polished (Hawkins, 1986). Such treatment is usually unnecessary and excessive heat can lead to delamination. It is usually sufficient to simply remove the core from the horn, cut it into veneer and use it. Horn may be bleached with hydrogen peroxide. Both horn and turtleshell may be polished with traditional materials such as pumice and linseed oil, or modern materials such as progressively finer grades of Micromesh cushioned abrasive cloths. A final treatment with a nail buffer will impart a high sheen. Turtleshell and horn may require the use of a support layer of veneer or thin wood when it is thicknessed and may be adhered to this support with a non-aqueous contact adhesive such as Cow Gum or Thixofix. The surface must be degreased before the shell is laid. Shell and horn have often been tinted by adhering them with an adhesive mixed with pigment or using coloured paper. Shell and horn replacements may be coloured using colour fast proprietary paints or pigments mixed with animal glue. It may be necessary to polish both sides of the shell or horn to allow good transmission of colour. Nonlaminated white paper may be used to increase reflectivity. The upper layers of the
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657: (a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659: Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
Page 660 and 661: Thus conservation grade materials m
Page 662 and 663: ing the colour. This may be useful
Page 664 and 665: materials is their photochemical st
Page 666 and 667: (a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
Page 668 and 669: French polishing French polishing d
Page 670 and 671: during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673: applying fresh polish before pullin
Page 674 and 675: the addition of a separate thixotro
Page 676 and 677: Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
Page 678 and 679: eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681: is used for laying gold and silver
Page 682 and 683: wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
Page 684 and 685: necessary to use a size coat as str
Page 686 and 687: however, makes it more difficult to
Page 688 and 689: flutes or other details in the carv
Page 690 and 691: 14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
Page 692 and 693: applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695: Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
Page 696 and 697: 14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
Page 698 and 699: ground would be prepared uniformly
Page 700 and 701: areas, however deep, that have been
Page 702 and 703: 15 Conserving other materials I Thi
Page 704 and 705: Consolidation Powdering or flaking
Page 708 and 709: shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
Page 710 and 711: oration and brittleness. The cellul
Page 712 and 713: to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
Page 714 and 715: emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717: Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719: of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
Page 720 and 721: gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723: when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725: and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727: (a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729: into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731: Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733: Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
Page 734 and 735: (1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737: into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739: (a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
Page 740 and 741: ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743: The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745: solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747: Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749: Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751: coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753: acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755: 16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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