Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Table 5.3 Pigments – continued will appear. The refractive index of some common pigments is shown in Table 5.3. The refractive index of chalk is very similar to the refractive index of fresh linseed oil medium (1.48) so that chalk in oil will be highly transparent. Rutile titanium oxide on the other hand has a much higher refractive index and is highly opaque in oil. Refractive index therefore makes a very important contribution to the covering power or hiding power of a paint. Particle size and shape are also important in this respect. Particle size plays a large part in determining the extent to which a pigment will scatter light and to a considerable extent the amount of medium required to wet the pigment surface. For a given weight of pigment, as the size of particles is reduced, the number of interfaces available for scattering light increases but below a certain size the scatter- Other materials and structures 229 Colour/group Chemical composition Origin/date Properties Refractive Pigment and description Index name Black Bone black (animal black, drop black) Ivory black Lamp black Mars black Earth pigments Found as amorphous solid or semisolid near oil deposits. Blue black pigment made by charring animal bones in closed vessels. It is a mixture of carbon (10%) calcium phosphate (84%) and calcium carbonate (6%) and has a smooth dense texture. Irregular translucent blackish brown grains The most intense of all black pigments is made by charring waste cuttings of ivory in closed vessels. Term now also used for Bone black Nearly pure amorphous carbon prepared from burning mineral oil, tar, pitch or resin. Slightly bluish in colour. Very finely divided, uniform, homogeneous See Mars yellow Complex mixtures of minerals including clays, ochres, siennas, and umbers derived from mineral ores and sedimentary deposits Sources: Gettens and Stout (1966); Harley (1982); Mayer (1982) Used from ancient times century School but now little used as it never dries properly and tends to cause shrinkage leading to alligatoring and cracking of paint films applied over it. Soluble in turpentine etc. Popular pigment also sold as ivory black. Works well in oil and in water colour Makes good neutral greys. Residual oil content may make wetting by water based media difficult. Presence of phenols may retard drying of oils. Mainly highly stable 1.65–1.70 Opaque Opaque Opaque ing power decreases. Maximum scattering of light is achieved when the diameter of the pigment particle is approximately equal to the wavelength of light in the particle (this is about half the wavelength of light in air, or about 0.2–0.4 μm). Pigments have particle diameters ranging from about 0.01 μm to about 50 μm, although all samples of pigment contain a range of sizes of which the figure quoted will be an average. As particle size decreases, the total surface area increases and hence the amount of medium required to wet it will increase. The shape of pigment particles is also important since it can affect hiding power, gloss and other properties such as water resistance. Some of the terms that may be used to describe pigment particles include spherical, cubic, nodular (rounded and irregular), acicular (needle-like or rod-like) and lamellar (plate
230 Conservation of Furniture like). Shape affects the way particles pack together and therefore affects hiding power. Rod shaped particles can act like reinforcing bars in concrete but can also project through the surface thereby reducing gloss but also providing a mechanical key for subsequent paint layers. Lamella particles, as found in aluminium and mica pigments, can overlap one another in paint films and confer increased water resistance on the paint film. The tinting strength of pigments is a measure of the amount of a coloured pigment required to achieve a particular strength of colour. It is typically measured as the strength of colour achieved by one part of coloured pigment in twenty parts of pure zinc oxide. The tinting strength of a pigment is independent of its hiding power and even quite transparent pigments can have high tinting strengths. 5.8.3 Dyes Dyes are organic molecules containing functional groups that absorb particular wavelengths of light giving rise to perceived colour (see section 5.8.1). The particle sizes of dyes are often on a molecular level allowing them to interpenetrate and stick to, or in some cases chemically react with, a variety of substrates. Their aggregates on fibres are too small to scatter light and therefore there are no white dyes. Unlike most pigments, most dyes can be prepared in solution. There is, however, some ambiguity of terminology in that some pigments, for example indigo and Prussian blue, are used as dyes. Some dyestuffs can also be made into pigments of larger particle size by precipitating them out of solution so that they are incorporated into an inorganic crystalline material such as aluminium hydroxide. These dye pigments are generically called lakes. Lakes are bright colours with low covering power and were especially useful in lightly pigmented paint layers or glazes. Lakes have a reputation for being highly fugitive and in may cases have only survived unchanged where protected from light. However, very high quality alizarin crimsons have been produced since the 1920s that remain permanent under conditions that cause older or inferior varieties to fail. Dyes may be animal, vegetable or mineral in origin. Vegetable dyes are cheap and ubiquitous and may be extracted from leaves, roots, seeds, flowers and from woods that are particularly rich in coloured extractives such as Brazilwood (Caesalpinia braziliensis and related spp.), logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum) and Sanders wood (Pterocarpus santalinus). Dyes of animal origin include lac, kermes and cochineal (carmine) from insects and Tyrian purple extracted from shellfish of the genus Murex. Mineral dyes and stains include iron browns and blacks, and blue–green copper acetate (verdigris). The age of synthetic dyes began with the synthesis of Perkin’s Mauve by William Perkin in 1856. Many more colours were synthesized from a chemical derived from coal-tar (aniline) before the end of the century. Today there are many thousands of synthetic dyes available, some of which, such as CIBA Orasol dyes and BASF Basantol dyes, show excellent stability. The use of dyes is as ancient as the use of pigments and many dyes have been sold as stains for wood. Dyes are far less stable than pigments, however, and tend to fade in colour or even disappear in extreme cases. Dyes have been used to colour all porous substrates, and penetrate well due to their small size. They bond to the substrates by various mechanisms including hydrogen bonding (e.g. direct dyes), non polar forces, due to matching shapes of dye and substrate molecules, ionic forces, and covalent bonding (e.g. reactive dyes). Most natural dyes are dependent on a mordant (from the Latin word ‘to bite’) to help fix them to the substrate. Traditional mordants were compounds of iron, copper, tin, chrome and aluminium such as alum (potassium aluminium sulphate) and copperas (ferrous sulphate). Tin and chromium salts yield particularly bright colours but are relatively modern, their use dating from about 1630 and 1850 respectively. Many single dye sources will yield a variety of colours depending on the mordant. Madder root for example will yield orange with tin, maroon with chrome, yellow with copper and brown with iron. Further information on dyes is given in Chapter 3 and in the bibliography to that chapter. 5.8.4 Stains The terms stain and staining are used to describe any sort of material and process used
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Page 230 and 231: Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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Page 234 and 235: Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
Page 236 and 237: In walrus ivory an outer primary de
Page 238 and 239: (a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
Page 240 and 241: Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
Page 242 and 243: tive applications. Metal tools have
Page 244 and 245: e preferred by hand smiths until it
Page 246 and 247: Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
Page 248 and 249: observed features can be carried ou
Page 250 and 251: Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
Page 252 and 253: Early in the fourteenth century sma
Page 254 and 255: diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
Page 256 and 257: a substance exists as a hybrid of t
Page 258 and 259: Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
Page 260 and 261: Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
Page 262 and 263: Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
Page 266 and 267: Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
Page 268 and 269: parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
Page 270 and 271: Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
Page 272 and 273: Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
Page 274 and 275: Part 3 Deterioration
Page 276 and 277: 6 General review of environment and
Page 278 and 279: which water, oxygen and other react
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Page 282 and 283: protect the material. When these be
Page 284 and 285: Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
Page 286 and 287: through which daylight is highly di
Page 288 and 289: climate. An important aspect of the
Page 290 and 291: (a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
Page 292 and 293: panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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Page 296 and 297: paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
Page 298 and 299: ences listed at the end of the foll
Page 300 and 301: about by localized conditions such
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Page 304 and 305: ing for some time before they are n
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585:
Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
Page 630 and 631:
although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
Page 646 and 647:
Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673:
applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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