Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Electromotive force (EMF) series, 321 Electronic flash, 403–4 Electroplating, 211, 689, 697 Electrostatic dust precipitators, 262–3 Elemis, 178 Elgin marbles, 371 Elm, 62 Elvacite, 570 Embroidery, 110 Emergencies, medical, 430–1 See also Disaster preparation Empire style, 29 Emulsifiers, 165, 536 Emulsions, 140–1, 165, 535–6 as consolidants, 570–1 poly(vinyl acetate) emulsions, 179 Enamels, 145 conservation, 704–5 deterioration, 704 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (EDS) system, 74 Entrance, to workshop, 410 Environment, 244 management of, 277–9 stores and storage, 277–9 See also Light; Relative humidity; Temperature Environmental stress cracking, 327 Enzymes, 548–51 denaturing, 551 rust removal, 692 storage, 551 Epoxies, 130, 185–6, 443, 488 ceramics conservation, 703 Equipment, 417–20 Erasers, 504 Escorez resins, 597 Esherick, Wharton, 36 Ester cellulosic, 130 fibres, 108 Esters, 511, 524 Estimating, 386, 397 Ethanol, 510 Ethers, 511 Ethics, 370–80 codes of ethics and practice, 370–1 conservation as a cultural discipline, 372–4 restoration versus preservation, 371–2, 436 tools for balanced ethical judgement, 374–5 V&A ethics checklist, 375–80 upholstery conservation, 722–3 Ethylene bromide, 353 Ethylenediamine, 692 Etruscan furniture, 5 Evaporation rates, 513, 589 Evelyn, John, 153–4 Examination, 368, 380–96, 408, 496 categories of damage, 383 structural damage, 383 surface effects, 383–4 japanned furniture, 754–6 methods of, 384–96 dating methods, 394–6 estimating, 386 gross examination, 386–8 mechanical tests, 388–90 microscopic examination, 390–1 sampling, 391–3 purpose of, 380–1 upholstery, 100, 723 what to look for, 381–4 workshop requirements, 411 Exposure limits, 425–6, 514–15 lead, 700–1 Exposure monitoring, 429 Extenders, 145 Extraction, 416–17 Fabrics, 107 See also Textiles Facing, 573–4 Factories, 34, 40 Fading, 353–4 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis, 273 Farthingdale chair, 13 Fats, 162–5 deterioration, 345–6 Feathers, 117–18 Felt, 110 Ferrous sulphate, 617 Fibre glass, 129 Fibre glass wool filters, 262 Fibre optic lighting, 387 Fibreboard, 89 medium density fibreboard (MDF), 38, 89 Fibres, 108–9 deterioration, 351 identification, 111 spinning, 109 See also Textiles Fibrils, 75–6 Filling, 574–6 Filling materials, 31, 99, 116–19, 576–8, 622–4 animal materials, 116–18 curled hair, 116–17 feathers, 117–18 casting materials, 489 deterioration, 359 Index 791 elastomers, 118–19 foams, 119 japanned furniture, 758–9 grounds, 758–9 japanned layers, 759 papier mâché, 759 lacquered (urushi) furniture, 768–9 leather, 734–6 adhesives for, 734–5 leather infill techniques, 734 non-leather infills, 735–6 marble, 716–17 painted surfaces, 752 pietre dure, 718 plastics, 721 scagliola, 718 sheet and moulded materials, 119 shrinkage splits, 464–5 vegetable materials, 118 Film, 401–2 Filters: charcoal filters, 265–6 particulate pollution control, 261–2 UV filters, 248–9 Finishing, 408 moulding and casting, 489–90 workshop area, 412 Fir, 68 Fire damage, 281 Fire prevention, 279, 280, 431 precautions, 431 Fish glues, 172–3, 443, 475 Fixed oil varnishes, 147 Flakes, 572–3, 766, 767 Flammability, 515 Flash photography, 403–4 Flashing off, 611 Flax, 108, 111 Flexure Formula, 84 Floral marquetry, 18 Fluorescence: immunofluorescence, 391 photography, 405–6 use in examination, 388, 390–1 See also Autofluorescence Fluorescent lamps, 249, 251 Foams, 119, 129 deterioration, 355 Folk art furniture, 20 Formaldehyde, 322, 354 Formation constants, 542–3, 544 Formic acid, 265, 527, 695, 698 Formica, 129 Fourcault process, 217 Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) spectroscopy, 134, 189, 391 Foxing, 256
792 Index Frame and panel construction, 94 shrinkage splitting, 308–9 Frame conservation, 459–60 mirror frames, 459–60 Framed construction, 94 Framing joints, 90, 92, 93 Frankl, Paul, 36 Frass, 296, 297–8, 300 French polishing, 34, 41, 148, 633–7 grain filling and, 622 Fume extraction, 416–17 Fumigants, 271–2 Fungi, 266–7, 294–5 control of, 267 effects on wood strength, 86 hyphae, 267 relative humidity and, 256 spores, 267 wood deterioration, 294–6 Furniture beetle, See <strong>Wood</strong>worm Furniture history, 3–41 early history: Byzantium and Romanesque period, 5–6 Egypt, 3–4 Greece, 4–5 Rome, 5 Medieval period, 6–9 16th Century, 9–12 17th Century, 12–20 18th Century, 20–6 19th Century, 26–35 20th Century, 35–41 See also Objects Furs, 104 Galvanic series, 321 Galvanizing, 689 Gas chromatography (GC), 188–9, 394 pyrolysis gas chromatography (PGC), 189 Geddes, Bel, 36 Gehry, Frank, 40 Gelatin, 169–71, 346, 676–7 use as consolidant, 569, 774 use in moulding, 485–6 Gelling agents, 553–7 cellulose ethers, 554–5 clays, 553–4 polyacrylic acid (Carbopol), 556–7 Georgian period, 20–1 Gesso: as filling material, 577 gilding and, 643, 649–53 application, 650–2 consolidation, 774 faults in the gesso, 642 smoothing the gesso, 652–3 grounds, 142–3, 333, 340–1, 643 Gesso hooks, 645 Gesso putty, 647 Gibb's free energy, 244 Gilders composition, 490–1 Gilding, 19, 25, 148–9, 490, 642–66 composition, 665–6 conservation, 770–7 bronze paint removal, 773–4 cleaning, 772–3 coatings, 776 composition, 776 consolidation, 774–5 distressing, 776–7 general care, 771–2 overgilding removal, 773 reintegration, 775–6 toning, 777 deterioration, 340–2, 697, 698 gesso putty, 647 oil gilding, 148, 149, 341, 643, 663–5, 772–3 coatings, 665 gold leaf application, 664–5 mordants, 663, 772–3 oil size application, 664 surface preparation, 664 on metals, 211–12 spirit gilding, 342 surface preparation, 647 tools for, 643–6 water gilding, 19, 148–9, 642–3, 647–63, 772 bole, 655–7 burnishing, 661–2 coatings, 662–3 conditions for, 647–8 decorative details, 653 double gilding, 661 faulting, 660 gesso, 649–53 laying the leaf, 658–60 matte water gilding, 660–1 punched decoration, 662 recutting, 653–5 size, 648–9, 658 yellow ochre, 655 See also Ormolu Gimp pins, 114 Glare, 250 Glass, 40, 213–14 broad glass, 214–16 conservation, 705–10 cleaning, 708–9 flat glass, 705 mirrored glass, 705–6 painted and decorated glass, 706–7 refitting, 708 removing glass, 707–8 repair, 709 repairs to adjacent wood, 707 crown glass, 216 deterioration, 323–4 identification, 217 plate glass, 214 Glass fibre, 39 Glass transition temperature, 126–7, 593 Glazing, 637, 701 Gloss, 587, 589 matting down, 590–1, 638–9 Gloves, use in handling of objects, 274, 385 Glues, 120–1 blood glues, 184 casein glues, 173–4 failures, 308 glue line thickness, 158–9 removal of, 458 SuperGlue, 186 white glues, 179 yellow glues, 179–80 See also Adhesives; Animal glues Glycerol, 163 alkaline glycerol solution, 695 Godwin, E.W., 29 Gold, 207 powdered gold, 211 shell gold, 211 Gold leaf, 210–11, 341, 646 See also Gilding Gold powder, 646–7 Goodison, Benjamin, 20 Goodyear, Charles, 112, 128 Gore-Tex, 676 Gothic period, See Medieval furniture Gothic revival, 27 Gragg, Samuel, 25 Grain, of wood, 52–3, 288 strength properties and, 85, 86 Grain fillers, 142, 620–2 Graining, 34 Granite, 218 Grasses, 118 Great Exhibition (1851), 27 Greece, early history of furniture, 4–5 Grey, Eileen, 41 Grime, See Cleaning; Dirt Grinding, samples, 391 Groomstick, 504 Gropius, Walter, 36 Grounds, 142–4, 643 bole, 143–4
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545:
alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
Page 554 and 555:
Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577:
Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585:
Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695:
Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
Page 696 and 697:
14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
Page 698 and 699:
ground would be prepared uniformly
Page 700 and 701:
areas, however deep, that have been
Page 702 and 703:
15 Conserving other materials I Thi
Page 704 and 705:
Consolidation Powdering or flaking
Page 706 and 707:
synthetic materials, such as Paralo
Page 708 and 709:
shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
Page 710 and 711:
oration and brittleness. The cellul
Page 712 and 713:
to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
Page 714 and 715:
emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719:
of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
Page 720 and 721:
gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723:
when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725:
and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727:
(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
Page 734 and 735:
(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737:
into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739:
(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
Page 740 and 741:
ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753:
acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777: Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779: may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781: If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783: cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785: may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787: Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789: that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791: (a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793: In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795: Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797: permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799: etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801: (a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803: Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805: Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807: ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809: tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811: (a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813: to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815: Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817: Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819: Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821: Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823: Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825: Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 828 and 829: deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831: textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833: extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835: plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837: Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839: epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841: (a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843: Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845: (a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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