Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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it is possible to share some facilities. The workshop described assumes that the upholstery conservator is working with no access to a textile conservation facility. The space required is determined, to a degree, by the largest piece of upholstered furniture it is envisaged that the workshop is likely to undertake; if beds and hangings are to be treated, height will be a priority. There should be sufficient access to the object to approach it from all angles for treatment. The doors and work spaces should be large enough for easy manoeuvrability of the objects. Some consideration should be given to the necessity of treating suites of furniture rather than pieces in isolation. Sufficient space for essential equipment and materials storage should be allowed since upholstery materials are often bulky. Frames may also require storage and dust covering while upholstery elements are being treated. As a guide, 75 square metres (approximately 800 square feet) has been found to be sufficient for two full-time upholstery conservators with occasional student projects being included in the space. Equipment should be as versatile as possible to keep the space fluid and adaptable to purpose. Floors should be tiled throughout with a solventresistant, non-slip material. Lighting requirements are discussed below. The dust area Work undertaken in this area includes all dust-creating operations: • Preliminary investigation of objects before treatment • Removal of covers • Vacuum cleaning of covers and upholstery under-structures • Conservation of existing upholstery understructure and complete re-upholstery • Preparation of substructures (e.g. machine tooling expanded polyethylene forms, wood sub-frames). The area should be partitioned off and have a separate entrance from the adjacent areas. A suitable dust extraction system will reduce the risk of dust migration into clean areas. The clean area This area is primarily used for the conservation of extant upholstery removed from its frame and ‘top cover’ work. Work undertaken in this area includes: Conservation preliminaries 413 • Preparation of removed materials for wet and dry cleaning treatments, e.g. dye and fibre tests, sandwiching textiles in net and making templates of covers. • Actual conservation work of removed textiles, e.g. re-attaching loose areas. • Re-applying conserved covers to the prepared upholstery. • Preparing documentation reports and photography. • Storage of conservation materials and tools. The wet area This area to be used for the wet cleaning and drying of covers, foundation materials and fillings and for cane and rush seating. An isolated area with fume/moisture extraction is needed for dyeing support fabrics and threads. It is also useful for scouring fabrics used in conservation (support fabrics or replacement/additional upholstery layers). If no access to a laboratory is available, space within this area may be reserved for wet chemical work. Metalworking area It is possible to get away with very small amounts of work on non-ferrous metals in the environment described for woodwork but it is inadvisable and unsafe to undertake more than this amount of work unless a separate metalworking area is available. In particular, ferrous metalwork and woodwork do not mix well. Sparks from metalworking operations and from metal swarf may ignite wood dusts and the two are not permitted to share extraction facilities. Finely divided iron and steel interact with some timbers to stain them a blue–black colour. Metalworking activities that may be required in support of furniture conservation include tool-making and repair or replacement of furniture fixtures and fittings. A forge for soldering, brazing, annealing and tempering metal items is needed if this kind of work is to be undertaken. An acid bath will also be needed for removal of fire scale. A metal-turning lathe, drill press, grindstone and buffing wheel are also very commonly used items of equipment that should be accommodated. For sheet metalwork, a range of dollies and stakes and a firm bench in which to fix them is desirable. Metal casting is a more specialist activity that is nevertheless undertaken by a few furniture conservators who have found it worthwhile to
414 Conservation of Furniture invest in the necessary (centrifugal) casting equipment and who may carry on this work for others as a sideline. In this case space is also needed for the mould-making processes and possibly for metal-plating equipment for gilding finished castings. Separate extraction facilities are required for fumes from processes involving hot metals and those involving chemical processes such as electroplating. Recreational areas Eating and drinking, and smoking should not be allowed in working spaces and therefore an area will need to be provided for these activities, along with lavatories and hand washing facilities and space for changing into work clothes and storing outer garments. Food storage facilities should be kept completely separate from those used to store conservation chemicals and other potentially hazardous materials. 9.5.4 Detailed requirements This section includes discussion of furnishings, fittings and fixtures, with reference to floors, walls, doors, storage, heating, lighting, power and ventilation. All furnishings should be practical and easily maintained. Colour of surfaces should be chosen to avoid interfering with colour matching. A light neutral colour is suggested rather than pure white, which may lead to excessive glare. Floors should be non-slip, solvent-resistant and easily cleaned. Entrance doors should be wide with reinforced glass windows for good vision beyond the door and a mechanism to hold the doors back for safe access for large objects. Storage Careful consideration needs to be given throughout the space to storage. Storage will be required for objects before treatment, objects after treatment, work in progress, materials, tools and equipment, solvents, corrosive chemicals, waste, perishable materials – in cool store or deep freeze but not with food, personal possessions, stationery, special items of high value and portability (e.g. cameras, gold leaf), maintenance and cleaning materials and equipment. In general, careful consideration should be given to personal versus communal storage. (a) (b) (c) Figure 9.5 A solvent storage system (a) Small quantities of solvents used in day-to-day conservation treatments stored in a tray (b) Several trays can be accommodated on a trolley (c) Storage of trays in a solvent cabinet when solvents not in use
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
Page 398 and 399: Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Page 402 and 403: 9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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Page 408 and 409: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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Page 422 and 423: Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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Page 428 and 429: when dyes are being used to achieve
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Page 438 and 439: candle 1900 K Household electric li
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Page 442 and 443: • Availability of adaptors for cl
Page 444 and 445: Recording and reporting treatment O
Page 446 and 447: should also be provided in or close
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Page 454 and 455: Wherever possible, manual handling
Page 456 and 457: some specific details of that proce
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Page 460 and 461: (a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
Page 462 and 463: isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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Page 466 and 467: and other emergencies such as gas l
Page 468 and 469: Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
Page 470 and 471: Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
Page 472 and 473: example, extensive treatment on one
Page 474 and 475: of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
Page 476 and 477: (a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
Page 478 and 479: (a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
Page 480 and 481: Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
Page 482 and 483: (a) (b) Principles of conserving an
Page 484 and 485: Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
Page 486 and 487: Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
Page 488 and 489: Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
Page 490 and 491: measure the diagonals across the se
Page 492 and 493: (i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
Page 494 and 495: 10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
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Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
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The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
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Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
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that which occurs during the remova
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(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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