Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAC) Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) e.g. ‘Cobex’ (Storey Bros. & Co – GB), ‘Darvic’ (ICI – GB), ‘Genotherm’ (Hoechst AG-D) Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) e.g. ‘Tedlar’ (Du Pont – USA) Silicone (SI) Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) Styrene butadiene (SBR) Plastics and polymers, coatings and binding media, adhesives and consolidants 133 1943 Germany 1933 Germany/ USA 1943 USA Polyurethanes, amorphous heterochain polymers, are formed from reaction of low molecular weight polyesters or polyethers with isocyanates and are classified accordingly into two main groups of polyethers and polyesters. Polyurethanes may be thermoplastics, rubbers or thermosets. They have been used as flexible foams in upholstery, rigid foams for insulation, solid elastomers and surface coatings Thermoplastic carbon chain addition polymers formed principally by emulsion polymerization of vinyl acetate. Principally used as emulsion paints and adhesives. Poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl formal), and poly(vinyl butyral) are chemical derivatives of PVAC and also find applications in conservation treatments as adhesives and consolidants and coating media Thermoplastic carbon chain addition polymer formed mainly by suspension and emulsion polymerization of vinyl chloride. PVC is used in plasticized form and as copolymer with vinyl acetate and with vinylidene chloride. It is available in clear and opaque colours in limp, flexible, rigid and self adhesive forms used for mouldings of all sorts, textiles (e.g. leather cloth) and sheetings, and in dispersion coatings. Films are difficult to tear. Cuts cleanly Thermoplastic. Carbon chain addition polymer. Unaffected by wide variety of chemicals, solvents and staining agents and highly resistant to weathering. Normally used in thin sheets in both clear and pigmented forms. Cuts easily. Films difficult to tear Heterochain polymers formed by polycondensation of polyfunctional silanols can exist as thermoplastics, rubbers and thermosets depending on starting materials and polymerizing conditions. They are used for laminates, rubbers, mould making materials, adhesives and other applications where good performance is required over a wide range of conditions Thermoplastic similar to polystyrene but harder with better chemical resistance. Suitable for outdoor use. Cuts cleanly Rubber Burns with blue-based yellow flame and acrid smell. Continues to burn on removal from flame. Not affected by cyclohexane or aromatic solvents Difficult to ignite, burns with green tinged orange flame, black sooty smoke and acrid acidic smell. Self-extinguishing on removal from flame. Softened by cyclohexane but not by aromatic hydrocarbons Burns noisily with yellow flame and black smoke with acrid, acidic smell. Shrinks on burning. Continues to burn after removal of flame. Not affected by cyclohexane or aromatic solvents Burns with orange flame, black, sooty smoke, and odour of marigolds. Continues to burn after removal from flame. Softened by cyclohexane but not by aromatic hydrocarbon solvents continued
134 Conservation of Furniture Table 4.1 Continued Polymer group, names Date Description and use Simple identification and trademarks introduced and country Urea formaldehyde (UF) 1926 UK Very hard, amorphous, chemically Difficult to ignite, burns with terns. Many nineteenth-century moulds for composition ornaments were made of pitch mixtures enclosed in a strong frame and squeezed, while hot and pliable, over an oiled carving. Gutta percha was also used as a mould material. Modern synthetic resins can also be used in this way (see section 4.7.6). Dental impression compounds have been used in picture frame restoration to make small squeeze moulds for the replacement of lost composition ornament. Commercial mouldmakers and sculptors have used poly(vinyl chloride) ‘hot melts’ extensively for large flexible moulds. 4.1.4 Identification of plastics and polymers Knowledge of the history of plastics provides useful background to their identification. Mossman (1988) and Braun (1986) provide simple tests for identifying plastics primarily based on solubility, heating and flame tests although additives for plastics are likely to modify test results (Gächter and Müller, 1985). The identification of additives in many instances can be carried out using methods described elsewhere in this chapter, however some additives are extremely difficult to identify directly and can only be inferred by the modification of properties from pure polymer or by sophisticated instrumental analytical techniques. The increased complexity of polymeric materials has made their positive identification resistant thermoset formed by polycondensation of urea and formaldehyde. The resin is always mixed with one or more fillers to make it suitable for particular applications. Used for adhesives and mouldings, and, with or without alkyds in reaction type coatings., Normally available in dark, opaque colours. Chips and powders when cut Source: Compiled from information in Hall, 1981, Kaufmann, 1968 and others cited in Chapter 4 pale yellow flame with bluish edges and fishy smell. Selfextinguishing on removal from flame. Not affected by cyclohexane or aromatic hydrocarbon solvents correspondingly more difficult. Lebeaux (1989) has published a book known as the Resinkit that contains fifty samples of common plastics along with simple tests for identifying unknown plastics and comparing them to standards. This kit is helpful for observing the range of physico-mechanical properties of commercial polymers. Urbanski et al. (1977) provides more advanced methods for identifying plastics. Though some methods require sample amounts that may prohibit their use in conservation, the use of silicon carbide sampling of materials for examination by Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) spectroscopy, as described by Martin (1988), is virtually non-destructive. FTIR microscopy is now becoming more generally available. Spectroscopic methods are further discussed by King (1992). Blank (1988) provides some simple tests relevant to conservation issues to help identify classes of polymers in order to determine proper consolidants and storage methods. Further information on the characterization of polymers is given by Campbell and White (1989) and by Hunt and James (1992). The identification of polymers used as coatings and media, adhesives and consolidants is discussed in section 4.8 below. 4.2 Introduction to coatings, binding media, adhesives, and consolidants Coatings, media and adhesives are found as normal constituents of most furniture items.
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
Page 118 and 119: mechanical effects of repeated shri
Page 120 and 121: wood member, for example, a block o
Page 122 and 123: The strength of wood in compression
Page 124 and 125: er of defects and repairs, and the
Page 126 and 127: unwanted movement in the joint is r
Page 128 and 129: 2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
Page 130 and 131: Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
Page 132 and 133: 3 Upholstery materials and structur
Page 134 and 135: Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
Page 136 and 137: Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
Page 138 and 139: it over a blunt metal blade or by p
Page 140 and 141: and dried to remove unwanted flesh
Page 142 and 143: Rattan or cane The cane that is use
Page 144 and 145: wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
Page 146 and 147: The surfaces of both woven and non-
Page 148 and 149: (Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
Page 150 and 151: was not until the early nineteenth
Page 152 and 153: (a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
Page 154 and 155: The ability of elastomers to be mou
Page 156 and 157: include polysaccharide gums such as
Page 158 and 159: Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
Page 160 and 161: Plastics and polymers, coatings and
Page 166 and 167: Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
Page 200 and 201: CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
Page 204 and 205: (c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
Page 212 and 213: Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Page 226 and 227:
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
Page 468 and 469:
Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
Page 482 and 483:
(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
Page 484 and 485:
Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
Page 486 and 487:
Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
Page 488 and 489:
Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
Page 490 and 491:
measure the diagonals across the se
Page 492 and 493:
(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
Page 494 and 495:
10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
Page 496 and 497:
microballoons. They may be levelled
Page 498 and 499:
Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
Page 500 and 501:
as a gap filler in cases where a fa
Page 502 and 503:
should be critically evaluated befo
Page 504 and 505:
(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
Page 506 and 507:
to the substrate or by using paper
Page 508 and 509:
e progressively tightened over the
Page 510 and 511:
Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
Page 512 and 513:
(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
Page 514 and 515:
ducing the curves on boulle and mar
Page 516 and 517:
similar fabric is stretched across
Page 518 and 519:
ures involved in preparing a copy o
Page 520 and 521:
and capture a high degree of detail
Page 522 and 523:
materials, used extensively by scul
Page 524 and 525:
making material. Traditional releas
Page 526 and 527:
The compo can be rolled out into a
Page 528 and 529:
Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
Page 530 and 531:
ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
Page 532 and 533:
(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
Page 534 and 535:
Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
Page 536 and 537:
11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
Page 538 and 539:
When a scalpel is used to pick away
Page 540 and 541:
adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
Page 542 and 543:
USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545:
alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547:
R' | R - C O The presence of the c
Page 548 and 549:
suppliers. Careful selection of sol
Page 550 and 551:
agency within the Department of Lab
Page 552 and 553:
There are four stages in the dissol
Page 554 and 555:
Figure 11.10 The positions of some
Page 556 and 557:
Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
Page 560 and 561:
as odourless mineral spirits or whi
Page 562 and 563:
effective in breaking down coatings
Page 564 and 565:
11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
Page 566 and 567:
keep the contact time of both clean
Page 568 and 569:
The two primary factors in choosing
Page 570 and 571:
Detergents Commercially viable synt
Page 572 and 573:
(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
Page 574 and 575:
carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577:
Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
Page 578 and 579:
constant (k) (at standard temperatu
Page 580 and 581:
Conditional stability constant (log
Page 582 and 583:
solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585:
Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
Page 586 and 587:
General purpose protease gel 100 ml
Page 588 and 589:
Wax pastes have traditionally been
Page 590 and 591:
on the application. It has been sug
Page 592 and 593:
As with gels formulated from cellul
Page 594 and 595:
Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
Page 596 and 597:
Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
Page 598 and 599:
12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
Page 600 and 601:
Natural materials Wax has been used
Page 602 and 603:
tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
Page 604 and 605:
that influences the choice of gelat
Page 606 and 607:
malachite and azurite. Decorative s
Page 608 and 609:
of flakes and cups but care should
Page 610 and 611:
damage when levelling the fill and
Page 612 and 613:
erty of the adhesive polymer rather
Page 614 and 615:
dimensional forms such as curved co
Page 616 and 617:
(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
Page 618 and 619:
chemical stability, flexibility and
Page 620 and 621:
colours are ideal for under-saturat
Page 622 and 623:
and those that must withstand use.
Page 624 and 625:
efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
Page 626 and 627:
use whenever possible and many cons
Page 628 and 629:
tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
Page 630 and 631:
although slower evaporating solvent
Page 632 and 633:
ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
Page 634 and 635:
Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
Page 636 and 637:
(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
Page 638 and 639:
appearance of paintings, Studies in
Page 640 and 641:
American Chemical Society, Washingt
Page 642 and 643:
often rely on self-levelling spray
Page 644 and 645:
ecoming progressively harder and da
Page 646 and 647:
Identifying a historical progressio
Page 648 and 649:
normally seen, so that it can be mo
Page 650 and 651:
Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
Page 652 and 653:
of an overall finishing strategy. I
Page 654 and 655:
e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657:
(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659:
Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
Page 660 and 661:
Thus conservation grade materials m
Page 662 and 663:
ing the colour. This may be useful
Page 664 and 665:
materials is their photochemical st
Page 666 and 667:
(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
Page 668 and 669:
French polishing French polishing d
Page 670 and 671:
during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673:
applying fresh polish before pullin
Page 674 and 675:
the addition of a separate thixotro
Page 676 and 677:
Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
Page 678 and 679:
eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681:
is used for laying gold and silver
Page 682 and 683:
wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
Page 684 and 685:
necessary to use a size coat as str
Page 686 and 687:
however, makes it more difficult to
Page 688 and 689:
flutes or other details in the carv
Page 690 and 691:
14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
Page 692 and 693:
applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695:
Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
Page 696 and 697:
14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
Page 698 and 699:
ground would be prepared uniformly
Page 700 and 701:
areas, however deep, that have been
Page 702 and 703:
15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
Page 706 and 707:
synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
Page 718 and 719:
of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
Page 720 and 721:
gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723:
when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725:
and graphite. They were commonly us
Page 726 and 727:
(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
Page 734 and 735:
(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737:
into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739:
(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
Page 740 and 741:
ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753:
acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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