Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for the Characterisation of Organic Compounds in Art and Archaeology, Thesis, Institute of Archaeology, London Sibilia, J.P. (1996) A Guide to Materials Characterization and Chemical Analysis, 2nd edn. VCH, New York. Society of Dyers and Colourists (1971) Colour Index, prepared by the Society of Dyers and Colourists and the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, The Society of Dyers and Colourists, Bradford, England Sparke, P. (1986) Furniture: Twentieth Century Design, Bell and Hyman Stambolov, T. (1969) Manufacture, Deterioration and Preservation of Leather – a literature survey, ICOM Plenary Meeting, 16–19 September, Amsterdam Central Research Laboratory for Objects of Art and Science Stenberg, B. and Akervall, T. (1989) Mobelstoppning Som Hantwerk Sveiges Tapetseraremastares Centralforening Stephenson, J. (1941) Practical Upholstering, Clifford Lawton Tanners Council of America (1983) Dictionary of Leather Terminology, Tanners Council of America, Washington, DC, 7th edn, p. 23 Taylor, E.S. and Singer, C. (1956) Pre-scientific industrial chemistry, in C. Singer et al. (ed.), A History of Technology, Volume II, pp. 364–9 Thomas, S., Clarkson, L.A. and Thomson, R. (1983) Leather Manufacture Through the Ages, Proceedings of the 22nd East Midlands Industrial Archaeology Conference Thomsom, R.S. (1981a) Tanning: Man’s first manufacturing process, Transactions of the Newcomen Society, 53, 139–54 Thomson, R.S. (1981b) Leather manufacture in the post medieval period, in Post Medieval Archaeology, 15, 161 Thomson, R.S. (1985) Chrome tanning in the nineteenth Upholstery materials and structures 123 century, in Journal of the Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists, 69, 93 Thornton, P. (1978) Seventeenth-Century Interior Decoration in England, France and Holland, Yale University Press Thorp, V. (1990) Imitation leather: structure, composition and conservation, Leather Conservation News, 6, 7–15 Timár-Balázsy, A. and Eastop, D. (1998) Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation, Butterworth- Heinemann Todd, V. (ed.) (1993) Pin beading, Conservation News, 50, March, UKIC, p. 31 Trotman, E.R. (1984) Dyeing and Chemical Technology of Textile Fibres, Edward Arnold Walkling, G. (1979) Antique Bamboo Furniture, Bell and Hyman Walsall Leather Centre (1992) Leather Bibliography, Walsall Leather Centre, Walsall Walton, K. (1979) The Worshipful Company of Upholders of the City of London, in Furniture History IX, The Furniture History Society, London Waterer, J.W. (1968) Leather Craftsmanship, Praeger Waterer, J.W. (1972) A Guide to the Conservation and Restoration Objects Made Wholly or in Part of Leather, Bell, London Weaver, W. (1984) Analytical Methods for a Textile Laboratory, 3rd edn, American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, Research Triangle Park, NC Webster and Parkes (1845) The Encyclopedia of Domestic Economy, Harper and Bros Wilson, L. and Balfour, D. (1990) Developments in upholstery construction in Britian during the first half of the twentieth century, in Upholstery Conservation, Preprints of a Symposium held at Colonial Williamsburg, 2–4 February 1990, American Conservation Consortium Ltd, Kingston, New Hampshire
4 Plastics and polymers, coatings and binding media, adhesives and consolidants 4.1 Plastics and polymers The word ‘plastic’, from the Greek word for mouldable, originally described pliable materials that could be shaped by hand or tool pressure as distinguished from ‘glyptik’ shaping processes relying on stock removal by carving, engraving or grinding. The term aptly describes all of the modern materials, commonly called plastics, which are all soft and mouldable at some point in their manufacture. It also describes the natural materials that are their technological and functional forbears, such as horn, rawhide, turtle shell, natural rubber and gutta percha. The general historical progression of the use of these materials furniture is from the natural materials through the semisynthetic to the entirely synthetic modern plastics. The many uses of plastics in furniture include structural members, veneers, inlays, knobs, fittings and decorative components, upholstery foams and textiles, adhesives and coatings. They were used from the very beginning to copy, often slavishly, more costly and rare natural materials just as the cheaper and reproducible processes of moulding were used to duplicate the qualities of more laborious carving and polishing. However, plastics, and the technologies of moulding, extrusion, lamination and hot bending, have certainly exerted an influence on design and public taste. Twentieth-century furniture composed entirely of wood often owes a stylistic debt to the forms of manufactured plastics. Plastic materials cover a wide range of chemical types, exhibit huge variation in physical, 124 optical and dielectric properties and are fabricated in a wide range of forms for different uses. Only a brief review from the perspective of furniture applications can be attempted here. For a more extensive introduction see Young (1991). 4.1.1 Chemical structure In all cases, plastic materials consist of a mass of very large molecules. Although some polymeric materials have a structure which is heterogeneous and complex, most plastics consist of long chains of repeating small molecular units, or monomers, covalently bonded together. In the bulk material, polymer chains are mechanically intertwined and may also be chemically bonded together or crosslinked at various points along their lengths to form a network structure. These materials are of high molecular weight and hence are referred to as high polymers or macromolecules. Polymer chains may be linear or branched depending on the nature of the monomer and the polymerization reaction. In homo-polymers, the monomer units are all of one chemical type. Hydrocarbon polymers such as polyethylene are based on carbon and hydrogen alone. Other carbon chain polymers may have atoms of other elements such as chlorine incorporated into the polymer structure. The replacement of carbon atoms in the backbone itself by atoms of other elements produces heterochain polymers. In co-polymers, the monomer units are of two or more types. There are three principal types of arrangement of the units in co-polymers, alternating, ran-
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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Page 118 and 119: mechanical effects of repeated shri
Page 120 and 121: wood member, for example, a block o
Page 122 and 123: The strength of wood in compression
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Page 128 and 129: 2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
Page 130 and 131: Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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Page 134 and 135: Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
Page 136 and 137: Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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Page 142 and 143: Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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Page 146 and 147: The surfaces of both woven and non-
Page 148 and 149: (Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
Page 150 and 151: was not until the early nineteenth
Page 152 and 153: (a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
Page 154 and 155: The ability of elastomers to be mou
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Page 160 and 161: Plastics and polymers, coatings and
Page 166 and 167: Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
Page 168 and 169: Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
Page 200 and 201: CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
Page 204 and 205: (c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545:
alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547:
R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
Page 568 and 569:
The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577:
Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585:
Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
Page 588 and 589:
Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
Page 598 and 599:
12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
Page 604 and 605:
that influences the choice of gelat
Page 606 and 607:
malachite and azurite. Decorative s
Page 608 and 609:
of flakes and cups but care should
Page 610 and 611:
damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
Page 614 and 615:
dimensional forms such as curved co
Page 616 and 617:
(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
Page 630 and 631:
although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
Page 634 and 635:
Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
Page 644 and 645:
ecoming progressively harder and da
Page 646 and 647:
Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
Page 650 and 651:
Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657:
(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659:
Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
Page 662 and 663:
ing the colour. This may be useful
Page 664 and 665:
materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
Page 668 and 669:
French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673:
applying fresh polish before pullin
Page 674 and 675:
the addition of a separate thixotro
Page 676 and 677:
Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
Page 678 and 679:
eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681:
is used for laying gold and silver
Page 682 and 683:
wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
Page 684 and 685:
necessary to use a size coat as str
Page 686 and 687:
however, makes it more difficult to
Page 688 and 689:
flutes or other details in the carv
Page 690 and 691:
14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695:
Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
Page 702 and 703:
15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723:
when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
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Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
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Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
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cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
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that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
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Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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