Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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dimensional forms such as curved components or carving. Decisions about the type and extent of retouching should be made on a case by case basis with a clear aim in mind. Reconstruction may be partial or complete and incorporate or exclude fills, colour and imitating texture or craquelure. The decision to undertake non-mimetic retouching may allow the object to be presented in a variety of ways. It may allow, for example, a conjectural reinterpretation whilst retaining the viewer’s ability to distinguish original from non-original work. Some conservators have favoured replicating the original structure and pigments in their reconstruction of losses. This approach may be adopted in the hope that the retouching will match the original more closely, and that as the retouching ages any divergence from the appearance of the original will be minimized. Even though original pigments and layer structure may be faithfully reproduced, however, it is impossible to replicate the original method of application or ageing. Other conservators have favoured approaching retouching as a colour matching problem, believing that the use of original pigments is not essential to match the repair to the original. In both cases, retouching is a step by step process, built up in thin layers. Each layer of pigment or glaze applied during colour matching will have some effect on the final result. Replicating the original structure can impart a degree of optical complexity to a retouch, as light penetrating the layers can replicate the look of an aged paint more accurately than a simple structure, which may appear flat in comparison. General ethical principles relating to retouching include documenting original condition and the extent of retouching. Retouching should be restricted to areas of loss. In the past, restorers have often extended retouching past the area of damage in order to blend it in with the original. Ideally, retouching undertaken as part of a conservation treatment should not obscure original material or decoration on an object. Artist’s quality sable brushes can be used to ensure accuracy. It is widely accepted that retouching materials should be distinguishable and safely removable from the original (Perry, 2000). Light, colour and metamerism Light can be defined as the range of electromagnetic radiation to which our eyes are sensi- Principles of consolidation, aesthetic reintegration and coatings 579 tive. Colour perception is not an absolute but relies on an interaction between a light source, an object and the eye of an observer. This interaction must be reproduced if colour perception is to remain constant. Colour matching requires a strong diffuse light source. When light strikes a coloured object, individual wavelengths may be transmitted, reflected or absorbed. Different light sources contain differing proportions of coloured light (Figure 12.5). The proportion of each wavelength available to be transmitted, reflected or absorbed will vary with the light source and, in combination with the spectral reflectance of the surface, will change the colour perceived by an observer (Figure 12.6). Ideally the colour temperature and colour rendering quality of light used to retouch should match that used to display the object. Since an exact match for each object is rarely achievable, a good light source for colour matching is generally considered to be natural light from a large north-facing window (south-facing in the southern hemisphere) due to the significant proportion of blue light. Artificial light sources that approximate natural light include colour matching lamps, colour-corrected halogen lights or a mixture of normal incandescent bulbs and fluorescent light sources. Although a good light source is essential for retouching, matching colour is only part of the process. It is possible, for example, to resolve a degree of loss with the ‘wrong’ colour. Thomson (1988) discusses the effect of colour temperature and colour rendering in the museum environment. For a thorough discussion of colour see McLaren (1983); for information on light see Brill (1980). Metamerism is a term used in colour science to describe the effect when two colours that match each other under one light source differ when viewed under a second light source of a different colour temperature (see Figure 12.6). Metamerism will not occur if pigment identical to the original is used. In many cases, however, this is not possible and a modern substitute must be used. For example, although Prussian blue may be colour-matched using cobalt blue, French ultramarine or cerulean blue, the result will prove metameric because these three modern pigments have a high reflectance of red in comparison with Prussian blue (Staniforth, 1985). It may be helpful to try to match the
580 Conservation of Furniture Intensity (a) Sun and sky (5500 K) Intensity Wavelength Wavelength Figure 12.5 Although they may appear ‘white’, different lights sources contain different energy distributions of the wavelengths that make up white light. These variations impart a slightly different hue to sunlight, north facing natural light (northern hemisphere), incandescent, tungsten and fluorescent light (Thomson, 1988) (a) Sunlight. In comparison to artificial light, the distribution of relative light energy of different wavelengths in sunlight is roughly equal. When sunlight enters the earth’s atmosphere, some of the blue light is scattered. This decreases the blue component of sunlight’s spectral distribution and imparts a slight yellow hue (b) Natural light reflected from the northern sky (northern hemisphere) contains a higher proportion of blue light energy that direct sunlight. This gives a bluer light source that has better overall colour balance than sunlight, incandescent or fluorescent light and is therefore better for colour matching. A variety of ‘colour matching’ electric bulbs are available as an alternative, such as those that conform to the 6500 K standard (c) Incandescent (tungsten) light emitted from an electric light bulb has a very high proportion of yellow–red light and a comparatively low proportion of blue light. As a result it has a marked yellow tinge in comparison to other light sources and is unsuitable for colour matching (d) Fluorescent light contains a high proportion of blue-green light in combination with very little red light. As a result it has a marked blue tinge and is unsuitable for colour matching spectral curves of retouching pigment/s to the original to minimize metamerism. Spectral curves show the range and amount of each wavelength present in the light reflected from a coloured surface. The spectral curves of many common artists pigments can be found in Barnes (1939), Johnston and Feller (1963) and Mayer (1991). Although colour may be measured using instrumentation, conservators usually colourmatch by eye. The ability to accurately distin- Intensity Wavelength (b) Natural light reflected from the northern sky (northern hemisphere) (6500 K) Intensity Wavelength (c) Incandescent (tungsten) light (CIE source A, 2854 K) (d) Fluorescent light (Phillips 84) guish colour varies from person to person and with age. The ability to match colour depends on practice, skill and experience but may be aided by knowledge of the theory of colour. Information on the theory of colour and colour matching can be found in Brill (1980) and Wilcox (1989). Information on the instrumental measurement of colour can be found in McLaren (1983). The language used by artists to describe colour is often vague. The terms hue, value and
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
Page 564 and 565: 11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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Page 568 and 569: The two primary factors in choosing
Page 570 and 571: Detergents Commercially viable synt
Page 572 and 573: (a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
Page 574 and 575: carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577: Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
Page 578 and 579: constant (k) (at standard temperatu
Page 580 and 581: Conditional stability constant (log
Page 582 and 583: solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585: Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
Page 586 and 587: General purpose protease gel 100 ml
Page 588 and 589: Wax pastes have traditionally been
Page 590 and 591: on the application. It has been sug
Page 592 and 593: As with gels formulated from cellul
Page 594 and 595: Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
Page 596 and 597: Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
Page 598 and 599: 12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
Page 600 and 601: Natural materials Wax has been used
Page 602 and 603: tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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Page 616 and 617: (a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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Page 620 and 621: colours are ideal for under-saturat
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Page 624 and 625: efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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Page 630 and 631: although slower evaporating solvent
Page 632 and 633: ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
Page 634 and 635: Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
Page 636 and 637: (a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
Page 638 and 639: appearance of paintings, Studies in
Page 640 and 641: American Chemical Society, Washingt
Page 642 and 643: often rely on self-levelling spray
Page 644 and 645: ecoming progressively harder and da
Page 646 and 647: Identifying a historical progressio
Page 648 and 649: normally seen, so that it can be mo
Page 650 and 651: Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
Page 652 and 653: of an overall finishing strategy. I
Page 654 and 655: e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657: (a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
Page 658 and 659: Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
Page 660 and 661: Thus conservation grade materials m
Page 662 and 663: ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
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Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
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The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
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Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
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Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
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PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
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Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
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y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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