Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro (a) Before conservation: accretions of wax form a halo around raised decoration (b) After conservation: wax was removed with an aromatic hydrocarbon solvent Oriental lacquer objects in the west were often given a coat of a natural resin varnish to restore lustre to the surface or as part of a restoration treatment. In many cases, the subtlety of lacquer decoration is compromised by such coatings, for example loss of contrast between matte and gloss areas or variations in makie decoration (Figure 16.24). The difficulty in removing an aged, natural resin varnish from a light-damaged lacquer surface is that the materials which will most readily remove the natural resin varnish are also the most likely to blanch or damage the underlying lacquer. If the removal of varnish is deemed necessary, it should be undertaken with the least polar solvent or solvent blend possible. It has been observed that the more hydrogen bonding plays a role in the cleaning action of a solvent or solvent blend, the more potential there is to disrupt or damage the surface of the lacquer (Rivers, 2003). Conserving other materials II 765 Figure 16.24 Detail of a lacquer panel (c.1640) incorporated into a French fall front secretaire (c.1790–1810) during conservation. Degraded varnish was removed from the lacquer panel with ethanol It is important that solvents do not penetrate the lacquer, via cracks in the surface, to the ground layers below. Gelled solutions do not sufficiently limit exposure of the lacquer surface and, as a general rule, should be avoided. In a few cases, where the underlying lacquer is in good condition, or where its surface has been so harshly treated in the past that the very water/solvent sensitive upper layers have been removed, it may be possible to remove an unwanted varnish using swabs moistened with solvents. In most cases, however, this treatment is unsuitable and a method that uses minimal solvent may be tested. A few drops of acetone, ethanol, or 80:20 ethanol and water, can be applied to a small piece of soft cotton cloth. The cloth may be wrapped around a fingertip and moved with very light pressure in a
766 Conservation of Furniture circular motion across a small area (a square inch or so) of the surface. As solvent diffuses into the resin coating it will start to swell and may blanch (become white). Continued treatment with very light pressure will remove the coating. This technique requires caution and patience. All the solvents mentioned above can damage lacquer if used insensitively and, even if a particular solvent is successful, this is a time-consuming process. Non-drying oils such as almond oil can be removed with white spirit. Coatings of a drying oil or oil–resin varnish may be problematic. Removal of linseed oil, for example, usually requires polar solvents, elevated pH or enzymes. Polar solvents and elevated pH may cause significant damage to the underlying lacquer surface, depending on its condition. Michalski (1990) has tabulated data on the swelling effect of some solvents and solvent blends on linseed oil films. The use of a lipase treatment is dependent on the sensitivity of the underlying lacquer to aqueous solutions, and whether the enzyme can function at a pH that will not damage the lacquer. 16.8.6 Consolidation Separation of upper layers from lower foundation layers is perhaps the most common consolidation problem that will be encountered on Oriental lacquer objects. This is most often a result of environmental conditions, particularly low or fluctuating RH, or the original manufacturing technique. Protein adhesives such as animal glue or animal blood were used in some foundation layers. Grounds based on clay and animal glue, typical of Japanese Meiji period (1868–1912) lacquerware, are comparatively weak and often fail. In the case of lacquer-based foundation layers, the amount of lacquer binder used at the time of manufacture was often reduced to speed drying. As the object ages, however, insufficient binder can lead to detachment between upper layers and foundation, and between foundation layers and the substrate (Minney, 1999). Consolidation of lacquer can be undertaken using lacquer-based materials or synthetic resins. Lacquer-based materials, which crosslink, are irreversible. Synthetic resins applied to a porous and fragile substrate or layer offer the advantage of retreatability and a degree of reversibility. Softening brittle lacquer before consolidation Cups, blisters or flakes on an Oriental lacquer surface are often brittle and may require softening before consolidation can be undertaken. Humidification, heat and the use of polar solvents may soften lacquer sufficiently to allow it to be relaid flat onto the substrate. Humidification at around 70% RH is often effective for softening brittle lacquer. A Gore- Tex sandwich may be useful for localized short-term humidification (see section 15.2.2). Humidification for an extended period, e.g. one to six months, may be necessary, depending on the thickness of the lacquer and the nature and thickness of the substrate. The traditional method for humidifying lacquer furniture is to use a wooden box, though polythene or Perspex may be substituted. If wood is used for a humidification box, the conservator should be aware of the acidity of the wood and its potential for off-gassing volatile organic acids, particularly acetic acid (Table 10.1). Such off-gassing increases as temperature and RH increase, and will damage many metals used for decorative inlay. Consideration should be given to the long-term effect of humidification on the substrate. Humidifying lacquer furniture that has been stored or displayed in an environment with low RH may be problematic. If a wooden substrate has split, for example, a sustained cycle of high RH, followed by a return to ambient low RH conditions can exacerbate compression set. It may also cause additional stress on the lacquer or ground that has been consolidated. Heat can be used to soften and ‘relax’ distorted lacquer but as the lacquer cools it usually resumes the distorted shape. A heated spatula, isolated from the surface with silicone release paper or Melinex/Mylar, may be used to apply heat (c.55–60 °C) to a small localized area. Short exposure to heat may be insufficient to soften the lacquer. Webb (1995) described the use of a thermal sheet in combination with weights, applied over a period of several days, to flatten distorted lacquer. The combined use of heat and moisture has the potential to discolour lacquer. Webb (2000) reported that the combination of moisture and heat as low as 50 °C from a spatula could result in a colour change on the surface of light-damaged lacquer.
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
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11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
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alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
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R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
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There are four stages in the dissol
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Figure 11.10 The positions of some
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Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
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into consideration the importance a
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Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
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The materials used in the decoratio
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solvent creeping behind or undernea
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Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
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Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751: coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753: acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755: 16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757: PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759: dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761: Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763: springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765: Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767: 16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769: minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771: (1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773: y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775: The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777: Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779: may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781: If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783: cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785: may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787: Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789: that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791: (a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793: In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795: Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797: permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799: etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 802 and 803: Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805: Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807: ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809: tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811: (a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813: to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815: Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817: Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819: Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821: Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823: Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825: Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827: Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829: deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831: textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833: extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835: plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837: Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839: epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841: (a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843: Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845: (a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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