Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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constant (k) (at standard temperature and pressure) is defined by the following formula (the [ ] brackets indicate concentration): k = [C 2+ 2– a ] [CO3 ] [ CaCO ] 3 If the reaction is taken to move in the dissolution direction only (i.e. CaCO3 → Ca2+ + 2– CO3 ) then the k from the initial reaction becomes ksp, the solubility product (the concentration of calcium and carbonate ions is divided by 1 because the starting point is a one molar solution): ksp = [Ca2+ 2– ][ CO3 ] 1 The k sp number is often very small. For calcium carbonate, for example, the k sp is 2.810 –9 . For convenience, the negative log of the k sp is often used (pK sp). For calcium carbonate, the pK sp is 8.54. The practical importance of this number is that the bigger the pK sp, the more insoluble any given salt is in water. In other words, the bigger the pK sp, the more stable a salt is in water and the more difficult it will be to remove. Sources such as Dean (1992) provide tables that list solubility products for a large number of salts. The solubility products of some salts that may be encountered in furniture conservation are listed in Table 11.9. Table 11.9 The solubility products of some salts that may be encountered in furniture conservation Substance Formula pK sp Barium sulphate BaSO 4 9.96 Cadmium sulphide CdS 26.1 Calcium carbonate CaCO 3 8.54 Calcium sulphate CaSO 4 5.04 Copper chloride CuCl 5.92 Copper carbonate CuCO 3 9.86 Copper hydroxide Cu(OH) 2 19.66 Copper sulphide CuS 35.2 Iron hydroxide Fe(OH) 2 15.1 Iron trihydroxide Fe(OH) 3 37.4 Lead carbonate PbCO 3 13.13 Lead hydroxide Pb(OH) 2 14.93 Lead sulphide PbS 27.9 Magnesium carbonate MgCO 3 7.46 Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH) 2 10.74 Silver sulphide Ag 2S 49.2 Titanium trihydroxide Ti(OH) 3 40 Zinc carbonate ZnCO 3 10.84 Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH) 2 16.92 Source: Dean (1992) Principles of cleaning 543 The principle of the formation constant can also be extended to the formation of a bond between chelating agents and metals ions. The same sources that give tables of solubility products also tabulate the formation constants (log K f) for metal ions with chelating agents (which may also be called organic ligands). The log K f may also be referred to as log K M'L'(ML)'. These numbers are useful in the same way that solubility products are, in that the larger the log K f, the more stable the complex formed between chelator and metal ion. The formation constants of some chelators and metal ions are listed in Table 11.10. To predict whether a salt will be dissolved by a chelator, the log K f must be bigger than the pK sp. If the log K f is one integer (number) larger than the pK sp it is likely that the salt on a substrate will dissociate and the metal chelate complex will tend to form in solution. For example, EDTA will bind Ca +2 with a log K f of 11.0. If a solution of EDTA is brought to a surface that had calcium carbonate on it, the EDTA will bind calcium ions from the calcium carbonate (which has a pK sp of 8.54). However, Fe(OH) 3 iron trihydroxide has a pK sp of 37.4, whilst Fe(III) and EDTA has a log K f of 24.3. EDTA will not chelate Fe(III) from the iron trihydroxide salt. In the same way, the solubility product and formation constants can be used to predict whether a chelating agent will have an unwanted effect on the substrate. The solubility constants of materials in the substrate (e.g. CaSO 4 in a gesso ground, or pigments such as lead white Pb(OH) 2.PbCO 3) can be compared with formation constants of these materials with a given chelating agent. Effects of pH and conditional stability constants The formation constant indicates the preference for formation of the reaction product (or complex) from the ionic species. This calculation does not take into account the affect of pH on the ionic species present. Chelation is an equilibrium reaction and is influenced by the presence of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. In aqueous cleaning solutions where acidic or basic ligands are involved, chelation is pHdependent. There is usually an upper pH limit for the effectiveness of a chelator and metal ions. Because chelators are pH-sensitive, a
Table 11.10 Formation constants of some common chelators and metal ions Citric acid NTA HEDTA DTPA EDTA Metal ion Log Kf Metal ion Log Kf Metal ion Log Kf Metal ion Log Kf Metal ion Log Kf Aluminium 7.0 Aluminium > 10.0 Barium(II) 6.2 Barium(II) 8.8 Aluminium 16.1 Cadmium 4.0 Cadmium 9.8 Cadmium(II) 13.0 Cadmium(II) 19.0 Cadmium 16.4 Calcium 4.7 Calcium 7.6 Calcium(II) 8.4 Calcium(II) 10.9 Calcium 11.0 Cobalt(II) 4.8 Cobalt(II) 10.4 Cobalt(II) 14.4 Cobalt(II) 19.0 Cobalt(II) 16.3 Copper(II) 4.4 Copper(II) 13.1 Copper(II) 17.4 Copper(II) 21.1 Cobalt(III) 36.0 Iron(II) 3.0 Iron(II) 8.8 Iron(II) 12.2 Iron(II) 16.0 Copper(II) 18.7 Iron(III) 12.5 Iron(III) 15.9 Iron(III) 19.8 Iron(III) 27.5 Iron(II) 14.3 Lead(II) 6.5 Lead(II) 11.8 Lead(II) 15.5 Lead(II) 18.8 Iron(III) 24.2 Magnesium 3.3 Magnesium 5.4 Magnesium(II) 5.8 Magnesium(II) 9.3 Lead(II) 18.3 Manganese(II) 3.7 Manganese(II) 8.6 Manganese(II) 10.7 Manganese(II) 15.5 Magnesium 8.6 Nickel(II) 5.1 Mercury(II) 12.7 Mercury(II) 20.1 Mercury(II) 27.0 Manganese(II) 13.8 Zinc 4.7 Nickel(II) 11.3 Nickel(II) 17.0 Nickel(II) 20.2 Mercury(II) 21.8 Zinc 10.5 Zinc(II) 14.5 Zinc(II) 18.4 Nickel(II) 18.6 Silver 7.3 Source: Dean(1992)
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
Page 528 and 529: Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
Page 530 and 531: ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
Page 532 and 533: (a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
Page 534 and 535: Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
Page 536 and 537: 11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
Page 538 and 539: When a scalpel is used to pick away
Page 540 and 541: adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
Page 542 and 543: USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545: alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547: R' | R - C O The presence of the c
Page 548 and 549: suppliers. Careful selection of sol
Page 550 and 551: agency within the Department of Lab
Page 552 and 553: There are four stages in the dissol
Page 554 and 555: Figure 11.10 The positions of some
Page 556 and 557: Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
Page 558 and 559: ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
Page 560 and 561: as odourless mineral spirits or whi
Page 562 and 563: effective in breaking down coatings
Page 564 and 565: 11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
Page 566 and 567: keep the contact time of both clean
Page 568 and 569: The two primary factors in choosing
Page 570 and 571: Detergents Commercially viable synt
Page 572 and 573: (a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
Page 574 and 575: carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577: Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
Page 580 and 581: Conditional stability constant (log
Page 582 and 583: solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585: Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
Page 586 and 587: General purpose protease gel 100 ml
Page 588 and 589: Wax pastes have traditionally been
Page 590 and 591: on the application. It has been sug
Page 592 and 593: As with gels formulated from cellul
Page 594 and 595: Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
Page 596 and 597: Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
Page 598 and 599: 12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
Page 600 and 601: Natural materials Wax has been used
Page 602 and 603: tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
Page 604 and 605: that influences the choice of gelat
Page 606 and 607: malachite and azurite. Decorative s
Page 608 and 609: of flakes and cups but care should
Page 610 and 611: damage when levelling the fill and
Page 612 and 613: erty of the adhesive polymer rather
Page 614 and 615: dimensional forms such as curved co
Page 616 and 617: (a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
Page 618 and 619: chemical stability, flexibility and
Page 620 and 621: colours are ideal for under-saturat
Page 622 and 623: and those that must withstand use.
Page 624 and 625: efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
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and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
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Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
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The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
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Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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