Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other commonly encountered joint types the mitre and the dowel joint will be briefly mentioned here. Parallel side-grain to side-grain mitres make a very efficient corner joint. Mitre joints where the grain meets at right-angles, for example in picture frames, are attractive but present serious technical problems because of the difference in dimensional change along and across the grain. They are apt to open up if the moisture content change is large or the joint is wide (Figure 2.26a,b). Gluing is relatively ineffective because of the large end-grain component in the joint. Joint strength can be improved by introducing dowels or splines that increase side-grain to sidegrain gluing surfaces (Figure 2.26c,d). Dowels are widely used in joints for a variety of different purposes, as tenons, as pins and as gluing accessories to hold parts in alignment. Where dowels are used to modify end-grain to side-grain joints, a mortise and tenon joint is effectively created (Figure 2.27). In a joint with two dowels that is subjected to racking, one of the dowels carries a critical share of the load in tension and the remaining load is transferred as (c) Figure 2.26 Corner framing joints: (a) picture frame mitre; (b) picture frame mitre after shrinkage; (c) mitre reinforced with dowels; (d) mitre reinforced with a loose tongue or spline (a) (d) (b) <strong>Wood</strong> and wooden structures 93 surface compression. Increasing the height of the end-grain member (e.g. a seat rail) allows the dowels to be spaced more widely, reducing the stress on the joint for a given load (Hoadley, 1980). Dowels need to be large enough to carry the tensile stress and deep enough to resist pulling out. They should also be able to carry and transfer the shear load parallel to the side-grain member of the joint. Great care is needed when using dowels or splines as gluing accessories to help locate the components of a joint to avoid both loss of gluing area and restraint of normal movement. Dowels can be used to help align boards that are to be edged-joined (Figure 2.23b) provided that the dowels themselves are kept reasonably short and are not glued into their sockets. If they are glued in then the restraint to normal movement of the boards may cause the wood to fail at or near the glue joint. Loss of surface gluing area when using dowels for alignment is likely to be small. In contrast, when using traditional short crossgrained tongues (Figure 2.24d) the loss of gluing area may be substantial if the splines are used dry, whilst if they are glued in position and restrain movement of the timber, splits may result. Figure 2.27 Dowel joint. Although dowel joints date from the nineteenth century, pegs may be found in earlier furniture, for example in the eighteenth century spiral fluted urn illustrated in Figure 10.6a
94 Conservation of Furniture (a) (i) (iii) Figure 2.28 Examples of framed construction: (a) gateleg table underframe: (i) mortise and tenon; (ii) bridle joint; (iii) cross-halved joint; (b) Sheraton style armchair (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (ii) (b) (f) Figure 2.29 Frame and panel construction: (a) panel sits in groove; (b) panel sits in rebate; (c) frame and panel flush and veneered; (d) mason’s mitre (mitre carved onto mortised rail whilst the shoulder of the tenoned stile is square), pegged; (e) true mitre (both stile and rail are mitred), pegged; (f ) framing and panelling used to construct a mid-sixteenth century English box chair
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
Page 78 and 79: Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
Page 80 and 81: Specific texts relating to trade or
Page 82 and 83: Part 2 Materials
Page 84 and 85: 2 Wood and wooden structures It is
Page 86 and 87: many properties, such as increasing
Page 88 and 89: ant consideration in the selection
Page 90 and 91: 2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
Page 92 and 93: may be gradual in some woods, abrup
Page 94 and 95: PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
Page 96 and 97: the United States. In the UK, the T
Page 98 and 99: Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
Page 100 and 101: Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
Page 102 and 103: Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
Page 104 and 105: A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
Page 106 and 107: Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
Page 108 and 109: In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
Page 110 and 111: Figure 2.12 A representative portio
Page 112 and 113: depending upon species, whether sap
Page 114 and 115: 0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
Page 116 and 117: Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
Page 118 and 119: mechanical effects of repeated shri
Page 120 and 121: wood member, for example, a block o
Page 122 and 123: The strength of wood in compression
Page 124 and 125: er of defects and repairs, and the
Page 126 and 127: unwanted movement in the joint is r
Page 130 and 131: Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
Page 132 and 133: 3 Upholstery materials and structur
Page 134 and 135: Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
Page 136 and 137: Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
Page 138 and 139: it over a blunt metal blade or by p
Page 140 and 141: and dried to remove unwanted flesh
Page 142 and 143: Rattan or cane The cane that is use
Page 144 and 145: wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
Page 146 and 147: The surfaces of both woven and non-
Page 148 and 149: (Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
Page 150 and 151: was not until the early nineteenth
Page 152 and 153: (a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
Page 154 and 155: The ability of elastomers to be mou
Page 156 and 157: include polysaccharide gums such as
Page 158 and 159: Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
Page 160 and 161: Plastics and polymers, coatings and
Page 166 and 167: Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
Page 168 and 169: Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
Page 178 and 179:
Plastics and polymers, coatings and
Page 180 and 181:
Page 182 and 183:
Page 184 and 185:
Page 186 and 187:
Page 188 and 189:
Page 190 and 191:
Page 192 and 193:
Page 194 and 195:
Page 196 and 197:
Page 198 and 199:
Page 200 and 201:
CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Page 208 and 209:
Page 210 and 211:
Page 212 and 213:
Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Page 216 and 217:
Page 218 and 219:
Page 220 and 221:
Page 222 and 223:
Page 224 and 225:
Page 226 and 227:
Page 228 and 229:
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
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Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
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Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
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example, extensive treatment on one
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of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
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(a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
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Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
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(a) (b) Principles of conserving an
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Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
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Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
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Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
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measure the diagonals across the se
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(i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
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10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
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microballoons. They may be levelled
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Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
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as a gap filler in cases where a fa
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should be critically evaluated befo
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(a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
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to the substrate or by using paper
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e progressively tightened over the
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Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
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ducing the curves on boulle and mar
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similar fabric is stretched across
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ures involved in preparing a copy o
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and capture a high degree of detail
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materials, used extensively by scul
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making material. Traditional releas
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The compo can be rolled out into a
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Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
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ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
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(a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
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Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
Page 536 and 537:
11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
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When a scalpel is used to pick away
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adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
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USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545:
alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547:
R' | R - C O The presence of the c
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suppliers. Careful selection of sol
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agency within the Department of Lab
Page 552 and 553:
There are four stages in the dissol
Page 554 and 555:
Figure 11.10 The positions of some
Page 556 and 557:
Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
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ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
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as odourless mineral spirits or whi
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effective in breaking down coatings
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11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
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keep the contact time of both clean
Page 568 and 569:
The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
Page 572 and 573:
(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
Page 576 and 577:
Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
Page 584 and 585:
Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
Page 588 and 589:
Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
Page 598 and 599:
12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
Page 608 and 609:
of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
Page 646 and 647:
Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
Page 650 and 651:
Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
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applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
Page 680 and 681:
is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
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Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
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Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
Page 722 and 723:
when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725:
and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
Page 736 and 737:
into the workplace. The type of exp
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(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
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Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
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coatings that may have been applied
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acrylic paint may be used if it is
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16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
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dyed by contract. Although this may
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Textiles used in upholstery conserv
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springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
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16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
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minium triformate or aluminium alko
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(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
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may be appropriate for leather lini
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If the surface is unaffected by spo
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cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
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that which occurs during the remova
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(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
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etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
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Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
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deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
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plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
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epair material selection, 437-9 woo
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(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
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Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
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(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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