Series editors' preface - Wood Tools

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ures involved in preparing a copy of an original via an intermediate mould will require the following steps: selection of moulding material, selection of casting material, preparation of object or pattern from which the replica is to be prepared, taking of mould impression, preparation of the mould for casting the replica, casting and finishing. 10.5.2 Selection of materials Selection of materials for moulding and casting requires consideration of several inter-related factors. First the material of the original object – which materials would be compatible for casting a replacement? Secondly what type of mould is necessary – is the piece to be cast large or small, simple or complex, undercut or detailed? Will it be necessary to reproduce large flat areas, to use piece moulds or to cast replacements in situ? Finally, of the materials that are compatible with the original object, which are also compatible with the mould making material best suited to the job? The method that is to be used to adhere or attach the replacement part to the original may also affect the selection of the casting material. There should be no deleterious chemical reaction between the moulding material and the artefact, pattern or casting material. Materials with a high water content, such as wet plaster, should not be used against moisture-sensitive surfaces unless an adequate moisture barrier can be provided. The variety of potential chemical or physical interactions between materials is great and it may be necessary to test procedures before using them on original artefacts or laboriously produced patterns. Moulding and casting materials should conform well to, and retain shape and detail of, the surface whilst releasing easily from both the artefact and mould. The form in which the material is used influences these properties. Materials in liquid form are more difficult to confine in use than plastic solids such as dental impression compounds, oven-hardening PVC gels such as Fimo and Sculpey, Plasticene, or composition. The main advantage of semi-solid impression compounds is the short duration of exposure to an original surface. The graininess or particle size within the material will affect detail. Most thermoplastics shrink somewhat as they cool. In a given application it will be clear Principles of conserving and repairing wooden furniture 483 whether the use of a liquid or semi-solid paste will be more convenient. Moulding and casting materials should be usable at temperatures that do not damage the artefact, pattern or mould and should not generate excessive heat during cure, which might cause damage. Some thermoplastics polymers, including waxes and PVC, have to be melted and used hot. Clearly these cannot be used where the pattern cannot tolerate high temperatures, as is the case with many artefacts. Plaster, epoxies and unsaturated polyester resins may generate significant heat during cure depending on the exact formulation used, thickness, ambient temperature and other circumstances of use. If the final cast is required in metal then the moulding material must be chosen to withstand the pouring temperature of the metal. Moulding and casting materials may present some health and safety hazards. These include the toxicity of thermosetting polymers, their catalysts and hardeners, risk of skin burns from exothermic reactions or hot melt materials, risk of fire from waxes, and risk of dust and fumes arising during processing. It is the responsibility of the conservator to be fully aware of the hazards presented and to take adequate precautionary measures. There is a wide range of both thermoplastic and thermosetting materials available, some of which are listed in Table 10.4. The letters M and C in the table indicate that the material is used for moulding or casting respectively. No material is ideal in all respects and so one must be carefully chosen to suit the requirements of a particular job. Cost, for example, may be a factor for large volume jobs. In many cases the same material might be used to create a pattern, make a mould or cast a replica. Wax has been used since antiquity for modelling, moulding and casting and various more or less complex recipes using natural waxes, resins and oils exist in historical literature. Synthetic microcrystalline waxes have largely replaced natural ingredients because they are available in hardness and melting ranges that will copy virtually any historic formula while being cheaper and more stable. Although waxes can be warmed and made pliable both for modelling and press-moulding purposes, they may also be used in fluid form. They can be painted or poured over a surface
Table 10.4 Moulding and casting materials Material Use Temperature Chemical Health and Dimensional Permanence Cost Notes effects effects safety change Alginates Animal glue (gelatine) Hot melt PVC Non-hardening clay Plasticene, Plastilene PVC gels Silicone rubber Water clay Plaster Waxes Epoxies Polyesters M M M M M M M M, C M, C C C Gel/liquefy at low temperatures c.40 °C Used warm. May form chill wrinkles Used at 120–170 °C Soften markedly as temperature increases Used at room temperature but can be oven-hardened c.130 °C Variable – some exothermic, some with high temperature resistance Very high temperature resistance when dry Exothermic Used hot, temperature dependent on type of wax used Exothermic cure Exothermic cure High water content Moist during application and use Avoid contact with metals May contain sulphur; avoid metals, Si rubber None apparent Sulphur inhibits cure. Acetic acid may be produced Moist during application; inert when dry Moisture evolved during setting; inert when dry Mostly inert, especially microcrystalline types Cure inhibited by some metallic pigments, e.g. cobalt Non-toxic Non-toxic, safe in use Burns, toxic gases None Toxic fumes. Skin absorption of vinyl monomer Catalyst components are toxic, harmful or irritant and may cause burns in contact with skin Non-toxic, safe in use Burns, dust Fire hazard, burns Toxic Toxic by inhalation, ingestion and skin contact. Catalyst can cause blindness None on gelling Little initial shrinkage Some shrinkage None < 1% on hardening Less than 0.6% shrinkage on cure 10–20% on drying Expands by up to 1% on hardening Slight to moderate shrinkage on drying Less than 0.5% 12% shrinkage, reduced with filler coat Very low – shrink and warp on drying Low – shrink as they dry Moderate to good Poor Good High Green clay is fragile Very good Very good if kept cool Good when cured Moderate Low Moderate Low to moderate Moderate to high Very high Very low Low Moderate High Often used for life moulding and architectural details; gives excellent detail but often requires a secondary plaster mould Has been used on sculptures that are to be cast in bronze Good for squeeze impressions Release agent should be used between mould/object and may be necessary between mould/cast. RTV (room temperature vulcanizing) are cold cure; additives allow thixotropic non-drip mixtures to be formulated Good release from oiled surfaces, wet water clay; plaster should be soaked in hot water before use Release agent essential Release agent essential
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Conservation of Furniture
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Conservation of Furniture Shayne Ri
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Contents Series editors’ preface
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3.2.5 Coated fabrics and ‘leather
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The actual move 275 Protection of o
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Recording and reporting treatment 4
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11.5.6 Enzymes 548 11.5.7 Blanching
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15.3.5 Repairs 683 15.3.6 Replaceme
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16.9.2 General care 771 16.9.3 Clea
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Series editors’ preface The conse
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Contributors Part 1 History 1 Furni
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Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation
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Acknowledgements It would take a ve
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Illustration acknowledgements The a
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Figure 4.14 (a,c,d) Drawing by Liz
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Figure 11.9 Julie Arslano˘glu base
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Figure 15.17 Courtesy of P.R. Jacks
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Part 1 History
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1 Furniture history 1.1 Introductio
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Figure 1.2 Klismos chair, English,
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Figure 1.3 Late medieval oak Englis
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conjunction of polychromy and carvi
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Materials used The choice of materi
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period reflects the dour and simple
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Figure 1.10 High-backed cane chair,
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to use the continental dovetailing
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Figure 1.14 Japanned cabinet on sta
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furniture by contrast was generally
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Figure 1.16 A mahogany English Rege
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One process of construction that co
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eforms in education (1870 Elementar
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chesterfields, chiffoniers, davenpo
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Figure 1.20 Papier mâché chair, E
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Figure 1.21 Thonet bentwood chair,
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major feature, and confirmed the se
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Figure 1.25 Sideboard, ‘Casablanc
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Figure 1.27 Tulip chair, designed b
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The range of finishes has increased
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Viaux, J. (1962) Le Meuble en Franc
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Specific texts relating to trade or
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Part 2 Materials
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2 Wood and wooden structures It is
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many properties, such as increasing
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ant consideration in the selection
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2.2.2 Wood anatomy: softwoods The c
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may be gradual in some woods, abrup
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PARENCHYMA ARRANGEMENTS V P Apotrac
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the United States. In the UK, the T
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Ash - Fraxinus spp. (1) F. american
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Birch - Betula spp. (1) B. alleghan
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Rosewood - Dalbergia spp. D latifol
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A A northern red oak Quercus rubra
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Figure 2.9 Tangential microscopic v
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In the walnut genus, Juglans, two i
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Figure 2.12 A representative portio
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depending upon species, whether sap
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0 and 25% moisture content. They ha
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Equilibrium moisture content (%) 28
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mechanical effects of repeated shri
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wood member, for example, a block o
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The strength of wood in compression
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er of defects and repairs, and the
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unwanted movement in the joint is r
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2.7.5 Other joint types Among other
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Figure 2.30 Dovetails and associate
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3 Upholstery materials and structur
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Figure 3.1 A late sixteenth century
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Epidermis/ skin Hair shaft Sweat gl
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it over a blunt metal blade or by p
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and dried to remove unwanted flesh
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Rattan or cane The cane that is use
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wood pulp and cellulose acetate fro
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The surfaces of both woven and non-
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(Gill and Eastop, 2001). ‘Throwaw
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was not until the early nineteenth
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(a) (b) (c) Horse hair, obtained fr
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The ability of elastomers to be mou
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include polysaccharide gums such as
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Shearer, G.L. (1989) An Evaluation
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Plastics and polymers, coatings and
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Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Phenol f
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Polyurethanes (PUR) Poly(vinyl acet
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CH 2—OOCR l R ll COO—CH O CH
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(c) 4.7.4 Proteins Plastics and pol
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Triterpenoids Plastics and polymers
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Figure 5.2 Sources of ivory that ha
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(a) (b) Bone and antler Bone has be
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Table 5.1 Class characteristics of
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In walrus ivory an outer primary de
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(a) (b) imitate the more costly tur
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Figure 5.12 Mollusc shells used in
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tive applications. Metal tools have
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e preferred by hand smiths until it
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Table 5.2 Relationship between comp
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observed features can be carried ou
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Figure 5.14 The use of a crane to m
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Early in the fourteenth century sma
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diffraction, energy dispersive X-ra
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a substance exists as a hybrid of t
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Table 5.3 Pigments Other materials
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued Othe
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Table 5.3 Pigments - continued will
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Table 5.4 Some traditional colorant
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parent to X-rays. X-ray diffraction
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Larsen, E.B. (1984) Electrotyping,
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Van Duin, P. (1989) Two pairs of Bo
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Part 3 Deterioration
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6 General review of environment and
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which water, oxygen and other react
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standard free energies of starting
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protect the material. When these be
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Table 6.1 UV Component of various l
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through which daylight is highly di
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climate. An important aspect of the
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(a) 60 (b) 30 55 30 50 45 25 40 35
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panying fungal attack. Animal fibre
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allowed to expand in one part of th
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paint, silk and some dyes and pigme
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ences listed at the end of the foll
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about by localized conditions such
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about the same size as the width of
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ing for some time before they are n
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may cause irreparable damage. Appli
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ensure that the chance of further i
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plied by the density of the materia
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6.2.8 Environmental management for
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est changed at the same intervals.
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in locations familiar to all to sav
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Appelbaum, B. (1992) Guide to Envir
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7 Deterioration of wood and wooden
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(a) Figure 7.1 A knot is a portion
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figure or behaviour. Tangential (fl
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time of exposure, moisture content
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RH changes lead to changes in moist
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Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
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(a) (b) Figure 7.6 The common furni
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one has proof of active infestation
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including starch depletion of timbe
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ise, when making wooden structures,
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(a) (b) (a) (b) Faults in execution
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Figure 7.14 Rear door of a boulle b
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Relative humidity (%) 100 90 80 70
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woodworm damage is accompanied by s
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century. In between these examples
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8 Deterioration of other materials
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(Tennent and Baird, 1985). Coatings
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Table 8.2 Copper corrosion products
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Table 8.5 Galvanic series in seawat
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occur either as a result of the des
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colour of a decorative paint surfac
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traditional furniture materials. Po
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preferentially absorb energy at wav
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may not be directly proportional to
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Figure 8.4 Detail of a pine panel f
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Figure 8.6 Detail of the lower part
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(a) (b) to changes in the medium us
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which property changes become appar
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ond with the support. Uneven drying
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the structure of the lacquer film a
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8.10 Adhesives In practice, adhesiv
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~CH 2—CH—CH 2~ | O Alkoxy radic
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within the leather leads to a react
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crease at corners of upholstery, or
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eaves of buildings are a source fro
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inter-chain interactions are the ma
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(a) (b) Figure 8.13 Degradation of
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trims to the frame may render fibre
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Wessell (eds), Deterioration of Mat
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Shashoua, Y. (1996) A passive appro
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Part 4 Conservation
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9 Conservation preliminaries This c
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techniques and rigorous grounding i
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• The retention of as much origin
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Conservation pr
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and preservation. He proposed a mod
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cally be undertaken. Before embarki
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cal, solutions include enclosing th
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various materials that make up the
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the nature, extent, severity and lo
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treatment needs. Reliable identific
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Figure 9.2 A good quality loupe (ri
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information should always be carefu
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ange immediately upon excitation. T
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when dyes are being used to achieve
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cause inaccurate readings. Wood tha
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structure of elements that have bee
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(a) ‘reading’ of the object. Fo
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design. This can be specially commi
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candle 1900 K Household electric li
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fessional quality shots in conserva
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• Availability of adaptors for cl
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Recording and reporting treatment O
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should also be provided in or close
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it is possible to share some facili
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Solvent storage Solvents should be
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(a) (b) and condition of incoming a
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Wherever possible, manual handling
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some specific details of that proce
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outes of entry to the body; risk ph
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(a) (b) Figure 9.11 Examples of app
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isks so that harm is unlikely? Only
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general maintenance of the workshop
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and other emergencies such as gas l
Page 468 and 469: Dunbar, M. (1989) Restoring, Tuning
Page 470 and 471: Stevens, R.E. (1980) Microscopical
Page 472 and 473: example, extensive treatment on one
Page 474 and 475: of the stock and a rule of thumb fo
Page 476 and 477: (a) (b) Chair leg False tenon 1/3 a
Page 478 and 479: (a) (b) (c) Figure 10.3 Testing the
Page 480 and 481: Hammer veneering with animal/hide g
Page 482 and 483: (a) (b) Principles of conserving an
Page 484 and 485: Table 10.2 Cramping/clamping device
Page 486 and 487: Table 10.3 Abrasives Principles of
Page 488 and 489: Table 10.3 Abrasives - continued ne
Page 490 and 491: measure the diagonals across the se
Page 492 and 493: (i) (ii) (a) Figure 10.11 Dismantli
Page 494 and 495: 10.2.4 Reinforcing joints If a loos
Page 496 and 497: microballoons. They may be levelled
Page 498 and 499: Figure 10.15 Jig used to keep fills
Page 500 and 501: as a gap filler in cases where a fa
Page 502 and 503: should be critically evaluated befo
Page 504 and 505: (a) (b) Figure 10.21 Marking out do
Page 506 and 507: to the substrate or by using paper
Page 508 and 509: e progressively tightened over the
Page 510 and 511: Boucher (1995) described a techniqu
Page 512 and 513: (a) (b) (c) Figure 10.23 Repairing
Page 514 and 515: ducing the curves on boulle and mar
Page 516 and 517: similar fabric is stretched across
Page 520 and 521: and capture a high degree of detail
Page 522 and 523: materials, used extensively by scul
Page 524 and 525: making material. Traditional releas
Page 526 and 527: The compo can be rolled out into a
Page 528 and 529: Properties, Chemistry and Preservat
Page 530 and 531: ehaviour of twentieth and twenty-fi
Page 532 and 533: (a) (b) (c) cleaned area should be
Page 534 and 535: Cleaning tests may embrace a wide r
Page 536 and 537: 11.2 Mechanical cleaning Mechanical
Page 538 and 539: When a scalpel is used to pick away
Page 540 and 541: adhere the unwanted varnish or dirt
Page 542 and 543: USA solvents (also known as) TLV (A
Page 544 and 545: alent to low aromatic (c.17-20% aro
Page 546 and 547: R' | R - C O The presence of the c
Page 548 and 549: suppliers. Careful selection of sol
Page 550 and 551: agency within the Department of Lab
Page 552 and 553: There are four stages in the dissol
Page 554 and 555: Figure 11.10 The positions of some
Page 556 and 557: Table 11.2 Teas’ solvent referenc
Page 558 and 559: ethanol acetone white spirit Figure
Page 560 and 561: as odourless mineral spirits or whi
Page 562 and 563: effective in breaking down coatings
Page 564 and 565: 11.4.3 Acids Organic acids have the
Page 566 and 567: keep the contact time of both clean
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The two primary factors in choosing
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Detergents Commercially viable synt
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(a) (b) Figure 11.19 Orientation of
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carbon rinse is required (Burnstock
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Table 11.8 Properties of some deter
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constant (k) (at standard temperatu
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Conditional stability constant (log
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solution and act as a buffer, e.g.
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Figure 11.24 Old residues of a coll
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General purpose protease gel 100 ml
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Wax pastes have traditionally been
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on the application. It has been sug
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As with gels formulated from cellul
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Leonard, M., Whitten, J., Gamblin,
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Viscosity may be manipulated to mee
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12.2.2 Penetration of consolidant a
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Natural materials Wax has been used
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tive. Volatile ‘binding’ media
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that influences the choice of gelat
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malachite and azurite. Decorative s
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of flakes and cups but care should
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damage when levelling the fill and
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erty of the adhesive polymer rather
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dimensional forms such as curved co
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Principles of c
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chemical stability, flexibility and
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colours are ideal for under-saturat
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and those that must withstand use.
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efractive index for air is 1.003 (B
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use whenever possible and many cons
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tic, dammar and MS2A. Window glass
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although slower evaporating solvent
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ut insoluble in acetone and lower a
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Figure 12.13 Diagrammatic represent
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(a) (b) ‘touch-up’ guns may be
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appearance of paintings, Studies in
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American Chemical Society, Washingt
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often rely on self-levelling spray
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ecoming progressively harder and da
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Identifying a historical progressio
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normally seen, so that it can be mo
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Figure 13.4 Parafilm ® is a thin w
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of an overall finishing strategy. I
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e used cautiously and with suitable
Page 656 and 657:
(a) (b) (c) Figure 13.6 The use of
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Figure 13.7 Proprietary shellac sti
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Thus conservation grade materials m
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ing the colour. This may be useful
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materials is their photochemical st
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(a) (b) Figure 13.11 Use of oils (a
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French polishing French polishing d
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during a polishing session. If the
Page 672 and 673:
applying fresh polish before pullin
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the addition of a separate thixotro
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Roelop, W. (1994) Coloured mordants
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eflective shine, whilst oil gilding
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is used for laying gold and silver
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wood be dry, free of grime, oil and
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necessary to use a size coat as str
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however, makes it more difficult to
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flutes or other details in the carv
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14.2.12 Yellow ochre A coat of size
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applied only to highlight areas (Fi
Page 694 and 695:
Figure 14.12 Manipulating the gold
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14.2.17 Double gilding Water gildin
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ground would be prepared uniformly
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areas, however deep, that have been
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15 Conserving other materials I Thi
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Consolidation Powdering or flaking
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synthetic materials, such as Paralo
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shell or horn itself may be dyed wi
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oration and brittleness. The cellul
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to reverse if necessary. Gelatin ma
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emoval. Dusting or wiping over the
Page 716 and 717:
Figure 15.4 Reverse side of a music
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of electrolytes (e.g. after removin
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gases, vapours, liquids and ions. T
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when the object is handled. Researc
Page 724 and 725:
and graphite. They were commonly us
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(a) (c) so if the treatment is to a
Page 728 and 729:
into consideration the importance a
Page 730 and 731:
Alkaline glycerol solution will rem
Page 732 and 733:
Figure 15.11 A gold snuff box, c.18
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(1990) and CCI notes 9/7 (1993). Th
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into the workplace. The type of exp
Page 738 and 739:
(a) (b) Figure 15.14 Use of pressur
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ensure that any water residues are
Page 742 and 743:
The materials used in the decoratio
Page 744 and 745:
solvent creeping behind or undernea
Page 746 and 747:
Snow, C.E. and Weisser, T.D. (1984)
Page 748 and 749:
Koob, S.P. (1986) The use of Paralo
Page 750 and 751:
coatings that may have been applied
Page 752 and 753:
acrylic paint may be used if it is
Page 754 and 755:
16.2 Plastics 16.2.1 Introduction t
Page 756 and 757:
PVAC, Paraloid B72, ethylene vinyl
Page 758 and 759:
dyed by contract. Although this may
Page 760 and 761:
Textiles used in upholstery conserv
Page 762 and 763:
springs, iron tacks, or brass naili
Page 764 and 765:
Reapplication of lined textiles Sta
Page 766 and 767:
16.4 Leather, parchment and shagree
Page 768 and 769:
minium triformate or aluminium alko
Page 770 and 771:
(1991) reported that stronger bonds
Page 772 and 773:
y enzymatic or lime action and whic
Page 774 and 775:
The principles outlined above for s
Page 776 and 777:
Figure 16.12 Front rail of a ninete
Page 778 and 779:
may be appropriate for leather lini
Page 780 and 781:
If the surface is unaffected by spo
Page 782 and 783:
cation and characterization of the
Page 784 and 785:
may not be representative of the ki
Page 786 and 787:
Deoxycholate soap recipe 2 g deoxyc
Page 788 and 789:
that which occurs during the remova
Page 790 and 791:
(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.7.3 Cleaning [1]
Page 792 and 793:
In the past, abrasives such as rott
Page 794 and 795:
Wax has been used many times to inf
Page 796 and 797:
permanently etch the lacquer, leavi
Page 798 and 799:
etouching and coating of lacquer ob
Page 800 and 801:
(a) (b) Figure 16.23 Japanese inro
Page 802 and 803:
Extended exposure to polar solvents
Page 804 and 805:
Retouching may involve reproducing
Page 806 and 807:
ethical considerations. Objects tha
Page 808 and 809:
tion will need to be reduced accord
Page 810 and 811:
(a) (b) Figure 16.28 Filling with a
Page 812 and 813:
to worked through the gold leaf slo
Page 814 and 815:
Down, J.L., MacDonald, M.A., Willia
Page 816 and 817:
Rococo Lacquers, Arbeitshefte des B
Page 818 and 819:
Budden, S. (ed.) (1991) Gilding and
Page 820 and 821:
Index Aalto, Alvar, 36, 38 Abalone
Page 822 and 823:
Cabinetscraper, 449 Cabriole leg, 2
Page 824 and 825:
Comparison, 385 Composites, 129 Com
Page 826 and 827:
Electromotive force (EMF) series, 3
Page 828 and 829:
deterioration, 333-5 gesso grounds,
Page 830 and 831:
textiles, 351 wood, 290-1 for photo
Page 832 and 833:
extenders, 145 identification, 187,
Page 834 and 835:
plastics, 721 See also Coatings Rev
Page 836 and 837:
Textiles, 107-12, 120 conservation,
Page 838 and 839:
epair material selection, 437-9 woo
Page 840 and 841:
(a) (c) Plate 1 Detail of leather u
Page 842 and 843:
Plate 3 Side table (c.1775) designe
Page 844 and 845:
(a) (b) Plate 6 A tall case japanne
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