African Water Development Report 2006 - United Nations Economic ...

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pressure on settlement populations dependenton that source than deficiencies in precipitation,but is not conventionally considered in definingdrought.In general, addressing the problem of droughtinvolves actions in the following areas:(a) Drought hazard and vulnerability monitoringthrough risk assessment and earlywarning of droughts. However, droughtand desertification warning system are notoperational anywhere in the world. In Africa,efforts to develop drought warninghave centred on strengthening subregionalinitiatives in West Africa, South Africa andthe Horn of Africa;(f ) Sound planning for drought preventionand mitigation measures, including in nondroughtyears, given the strong role of preparednessin reducing drought risks. Themultifaceted nature of drought makes itnecessary to apply to it an effective managementbased on a planned and developmentalapproach rather than a crisis-managementapproach.One main problem with mitigating the effectsof droughts through conventional water transferschemes is that most of the drought-proneareas of Africa are water-deficit. This makes itunfeasible to ameliorate water stress in droughtareas through transfers from large river basinsto address meteorological drought. Also, severalrivers are not drought reliable as they shrink duringdrought periods and therefore do not lendthemselves to use as alternate sources of waterto surrounding lands during stress periods of hydrologicaldrought. In-depth analysis on sourcerivers is very necessary in order to avert negativeimpacts during lean rainfall seasons.MANAGING RISKS(b) Water supply management, including improvingstorage (e.g. construction of reservoirs),processing and distribution, to preservenormal off-take from water sourcesduring periods of deficient precipitation.Here, water harvesting and other low-coststorage mechanisms are relevant;(c) Water demand management, includingvoluntary restraints and enforced water saving;(d)Improving effective water use, throughsuch measures as improving soil moisturemanagement, often by means of existingtraditional practices and mechanisms;(e) Protecting and enhancing water sourcesthrough sound environmental managementand effective compliance with regulatorymeasures;Owing partly to the difficulties in droughtmitigation worldwide, the status of combatingdrought is not encouraging: even developedcountries have only recently designed and begunto implement drought management plans. Forexample, in the USA, Congress passed the NationalDrought Policy Act in 1998, the AustralianNational Drought Policy was formulated in1992 while China established its first integratedoperational drought monitoring system during1996-2000 (Vordzorgbe 2003). In Africa, nearlyall countries have prepared national droughtmitigation action plans, while ECOWAS andIGAD have prepared subregional plans withinthe ambit of UNCCD.Water Pollution Prevention and ControlIt will be difficult to meet the varied demandson water systems without effective managementinvolving the protection of water quality and thepreservation of ecosystems and biodiversity. Thisis why the trend of declining water quality in Africais a worrisome development that can affectwater availability, use and access. The chemical,physical and microbial factors that generally affectwater quality are listed by Vordzorgbe, S. D,(2003) as follows: pollutants, nutrients, heavy243
African Water Development Report 2006metal, microbial contamination, toxic organiccompounds, salinization, acidification, suspendedparticles and temperature.The algae eutrophication that is polluting severalwater bodies in Africa is caused by increasednutrient levels from poor agricultural practicesand discharge of untreated wastes. Groundwaterresources are becoming polluted by three maincauses: (a) leaching of pollutants from agriculture,industry and untreated sewage, (b) salinizationthrough saltwater intrusion and irrigationwater seepage, and (c) natural hydrogeochemicalpollution. There are very few studies on groundwaterquality in Africa and, currently, there isno comprehensive programme of groundwaterquality monitoring on the continent. Industrialpollution, effluent discharge and other forms ofpollution, are contaminating freshwater lakes,wetlands and dams leading to various forms ofwater body degradation, including quality reductionand biodiversity loss. These seriously impairthe ability of freshwater systems to filter and purifywater. Changes in lake water condition, as ameasure of lake water quality, from the 1960s tothe 1990s, show that conditions in 40 per centof the lakes in Africa have worsened while 5 percent improved (UNESCO and Bergham Books2003).African countries have undertaken a wide rangeof measures to prevent and control water quality,including:(a) Integrated land and water management;(b) Improvement of freshwater storage, treatmentand distribution;(c) Control of watershed degradation throughmeasures such as site protection, environmentalregulations and public awareness;(d) Urban sanitation interventions, includingwaste treatment;(e) Establishment of potable water qualitystandards and effluent controls;(f ) Abstraction management;(g) Improving the institutional framework forwater supply management, including deepeningparticipation through communitywater and sanitation schemes and water usersassociations;(h) Ratification of relevant regional and transboundarywater management conventions;and(i) Removal of aquatic weeds.The importance of a particular water quality issuedepends on the context: the definition of waterquality is not objective but is socially determined,depending on the use of the water. Hence, theestablishment, monitoring and enforcement ofcompliance with standards for water quality, waterabstraction and watershed use are crucial inpreventing and controlling water pollution. Enforcingcompliance with planning and regulatoryprovisions often requires the twin approachof using incentives and deterrents. The formerincludes economic incentives, such as pollutioncharging, based on the polluter pays principle,and discharge permits, but their effect is notmuch felt in Africa, largely due to informationdeficiency. To improve results, the approach toachieving compliance should strike an appropriatebalance between enforcing compliance withregulations and adopting participation-orientedapproaches based on self-consent. Nonetheless,one important lesson is that key institutionalfactors may be in place for consultation and cooperativeapproaches to help ensure successfulwater quality management, but regulatory bodiesmust continue to enforce regulations (WorldBank 2003).Dam Failure RisksThere are at least 1,272 large dams in Africa,mainly for irrigation and water supply, followedby hydropower generation. South Africa has thehighest number of dams (539) followed by Zimbabwe(213) and Algeria (107). Overall, Africahas 2.4 per cent of the world’s large reservoirs,including dams. Most of the major river basinsin Africa have been dammed, resulting in significantbackflooding. However, reservoir develop-244
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AFRICANWATERDEVELOPMENTREPORT2006
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CONTENTSWater for Sustainable Socio
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis is the final v
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The African Water Development Repor
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INTRODUCTION - WATER FOR SUSTAINABL
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WATER FORSUSTAINABLESOCIO-ECONOMICD
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African Water Development Report 20
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INTERNATIONALAND AFRICANMILESTONESN
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INDICATORS -MEASURING THEPROGRESS O
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(i) Specific for a certain stress o
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Water and ecosystemWater and indust
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Purpose: Global water security prov
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Table 5.1: Adopted targets and indi
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Human Development Index (HDI): This
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The Environmental Sustainability In
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Significant Indicators - Libya1. Li
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ReferencesAfrica Facts: http://www.
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FRESHWATERRESOURCES INAFRICAThe mai
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annual flows of rivers and groundwa
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Fig. 4.3: Actual Renewable Water in
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Box 4.1: Water Availability and Ser
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Table 4.9: Surface Water by Watersh
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Table 4.12: Dynamics of Water Use,
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Figure 4.7: Major Groundwater Withd
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Annual freshwater withdrawals in Ea
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Fig. 4.12: Percentage of Domestic,
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Table 4.15: Desalination capacities
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Although some African countries hav
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Fig. 4.17: Water Poverty Index by S
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The problem of wastewater disposal
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FRESHWATER RESOURCES IN AFRICASourc
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Water Conference, December 3-7, 200
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PROTECTINGECOSYSTEMSIN AFRICAThe pr
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abstracted and flow regulated. Irri
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Fig. 6.2: Freshwater Ecosystem Area
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Figure 6.3: Water Availability and
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Table 6.4: Indication of the Microb
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Fertilisers are also a potential th
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Box 6.2Pollution Control - The Ethi
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Fig. 6.2: Freshwater Ecosystem Area
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Region/Country Mammals Birds Flower
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espective of the fact that some oth
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Protected areas in Africa occupy sl
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past few decades, population densit
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Fig. 6.12: Urban Ecosystem and Buil
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Fig. 6.13 Environmental Sustainabil
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Case Study: Sediment Control andAqu
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Fig 6.15: Comparison of Rainfall, D
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South Africa and Bophuthatswana. (D
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of interdependent factors which adv
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Referencesafrol News, 2001: Lake Ch
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United Nations Population Divison (
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Page 262 and 263: SHARING WATERFOR REGIONALINTEGRATIO
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ENSURING THEKNOWLEDGE BASESince anc
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polluted due to overgrazing, and ce
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Box 16.2: Indigenous Knowledge on C
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The present day call for integrated
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cipitation monitoring; determinatio
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processes and situations or to an o
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Capacity Building in AfricaFrom the
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The requisite enabling environment
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African countries can obviously not
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the science and technology of the s
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Box 16.9: Research Institutions in
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Global Water Partnership ToolboxThe
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(a) Journal of Hydraulic Research:
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Key Outputs: The first steps for th
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Figure 16.6: Number of Radios per 1
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particular relevance to data collec
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of water in agriculture through imp
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The UNESCO Water Portal is intended
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IWRM Course Participants according
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5.. Alemayehu Tafesse (Ethiopia), 2
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GLOWA info gsf website: http://www.
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IMPLEMENTATIONOF TARGETS UNDERTHE A
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Public Participation;(d) Informatio
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a regional framework for Africa as
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Programme SubRegion Estimated Costs
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