African Water Development Report 2006 - United Nations Economic ...

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cipitation monitoring; determination of surfacewater extent; monitoring surface water balances,soil moisture status; monitoring sediment loadin rivers and lakes; groundwater exploration; soilerosion; estimation of evapotranspiration; andthe extraction of physiographic and basin characteristicsfor hydrological and water resourcespurposes.Geographical Information Systems inWater and Land use PlanningIn the last few decades, the development ofearth science disciplines such as geology, geography,hydrology and soil sciences, and the everincreasingdemand for a rational use of naturalresources such as water, land and mineral deposits,have greatly enhanced both the collection ofspatial data, and the production of a variety ofgeneral-purpose or special-purpose maps. Mapsare, indeed, the best method for reducing verylarge-scale spatial relations so they can be easilyperceived and analysed. Thus maps can be veryuseful in obtaining geo-environmental data (suchas geology, geomorphology, hydrography, landuse/cover data) and social data (such as populationdensity, distribution, transportation facilitiesand water works) based on ground surveys, aerialphotography, and possibly high-resolution opticalsatellite imagery.Professionally oriented water software technologiesare available in such areas as:(a) Urban storm-water management: In which apackage of sub-programmes is usually usedto determine:(i) Urban runoff quantity (some kind ofrainfall-runoff analysis, for example, usinghydrographs);(ii) Transportation through drainage networks(flood routing);(iii) Storage and treatment; and(iv) Water quality effects on receiving waters.(b) Rainfall-runoff analysis: In which sub-programmesare used to simulate the responseof watersheds and stream networks to givenrainfall and, sometimes, snowmelt conditions.A methodology followed in some ofthe packages is the standard United StatesSoil Conservation methodology;(c)Water supply network design: For loopedpipeline networks, flows and pressures inthe network which can be calculated in aniterative manner. The method of Hardy-Cross is used to solve the resistance equations,which can be the Hazen-Williams,Darcy-Weisbach, or Manning formulation;ENSURING THE KNOWLEDGE BASEFrom Knowledge to Technology: WaterResources Systems Design and ManagementGenerally, the mode of development of softwaretechnologies also determines their transfer modality.Those developed by mainly professionalfirms are normally covered by patent and authorlicenses and can therefore be acquired throughpurchases, which make them less affordable toAfrican practitioners. In contrast, those technologiesdeveloped by academic and researchinstitutions are transferred through research anddevelopment processes.(d) Flood frequency analysis: In which packagesare set up for flood frequency analysis usinga distribution such as the log-Pearson Type111 or the Gumbel, or sometimes givingthe user a choice of distributions;(e)Flood routine: whereby an inflow hydrographalready calculated using rainfall-runoffanalysis can be routed through a hydraulicchannel and/or a reservoir (detentionpond) to obtain the outflow hydrograph.The methodology is generally that of quasisteadyflow, using the Chezy equation witheither the Manning or Darcy-Weisbachformulation for friction coefficients; and307
African Water Development Report 2006(f ) Data management: The software for thisfunction is often patterned after UnitedStates Environment Protection Agencydatabase systems which may contain programmesto:(i) Screen the input data;(ii) Fill in missing data, using regressiontechniques;(iii) Carry out statistical analysis of thedata;(iv) Generate synthetic series; and(v) Simulate hydrological processes.Research variety water software: Most of theseprogrammes are developed by universities, governmentresearch institutes, or large consultancies,often for a specific research project, and notfor general use. Organizations like the UnitedStates Army Corps of Engineers, the DelftHydraulics Laboratory, or the Danish HydraulicInstitute, just to name a few, routinely use alarge number of computer models that could beclassified as “research-related packages”. Theseinclude:different uses, at the very least, agricultural anddomestic water use. Another important distinctionbetween various river-basin models iswhether they are simulation models or optimizationmodels;(c)Flood control and floodplain management:There are two types of formulation of suchmodels which can be presented purely inphysical terms as hydraulic/hydrologicalprogrammes to determine the change andextent of flood patterns and also as economicor planning models that deal withthe effect of flooding on the floodplain users;(d) Reservoir operations: For reservoir operationsmodels, as for river-basin models, the distinctionbetween simulation and optimizationis important. The objective of reservoirmodels is to get the maximum amount ofbenefits out of a reservoir, given a time seriesof upstream inflows and downstreamdemands;(a) Watershed management and water balance:Most watershed models are composed of aset of the following elements depending onthe particular application:(i) rainfall-runoff;(ii) evapotranspiration;(iii) energy balance (if snowmelt is important)(iv) erosion;(v) runoff routing;(vi) transport of chemicals (nutrients, pesticides),and/or(vii) crop growth;(b) River-basin simulation and optimization:Watershed models deal with the part of the hydrologicalcycle from rainfall to the time whenthe water ends up in rivers or lakes. River-basinmodels deal with the different ways water can beused in a river-basin. They usually include somekind of storage in reservoirs, routing through ahydraulic network, and some representation of(e) Ground-water models: Ground-water modelsare generally large, and most are of the researchvariety. Some of the less complicatedpackages are offered commercially, usuallycosting more than $US 1,000 to start with.Ground-water models are either two-dimensionalor quasi-three- dimensional;(f ) Systems management: In recent years there hasbeen an increased interest in computerizingthe operation and maintenance of complexsystems such as irrigation systems or watersupply networks. A large number of componentelements generally make a systemcomplex;(g) Dynamic programming: Dynamic programming(DP) is a rather sophisticated optimizationtechnique that can handle prob1emsthat change over time or involving stochasticprocesses. In contrast, linear programmingis more adaptable to deterministic308
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AFRICANWATERDEVELOPMENTREPORT2006
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CONTENTSWater for Sustainable Socio
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis is the final v
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The African Water Development Repor
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INTRODUCTION - WATER FOR SUSTAINABL
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WATER FORSUSTAINABLESOCIO-ECONOMICD
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African Water Development Report 20
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INTERNATIONALAND AFRICANMILESTONESN
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INDICATORS -MEASURING THEPROGRESS O
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(i) Specific for a certain stress o
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Water and ecosystemWater and indust
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Purpose: Global water security prov
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Table 5.1: Adopted targets and indi
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Human Development Index (HDI): This
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The Environmental Sustainability In
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Significant Indicators - Libya1. Li
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ReferencesAfrica Facts: http://www.
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FRESHWATERRESOURCES INAFRICAThe mai
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annual flows of rivers and groundwa
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Fig. 4.3: Actual Renewable Water in
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Box 4.1: Water Availability and Ser
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Table 4.9: Surface Water by Watersh
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Table 4.12: Dynamics of Water Use,
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Figure 4.7: Major Groundwater Withd
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Annual freshwater withdrawals in Ea
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Fig. 4.12: Percentage of Domestic,
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Table 4.15: Desalination capacities
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Although some African countries hav
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Fig. 4.17: Water Poverty Index by S
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The problem of wastewater disposal
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FRESHWATER RESOURCES IN AFRICASourc
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Water Conference, December 3-7, 200
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PROTECTINGECOSYSTEMSIN AFRICAThe pr
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abstracted and flow regulated. Irri
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Fig. 6.2: Freshwater Ecosystem Area
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Figure 6.3: Water Availability and
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Table 6.4: Indication of the Microb
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Fertilisers are also a potential th
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Box 6.2Pollution Control - The Ethi
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Fig. 6.2: Freshwater Ecosystem Area
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Region/Country Mammals Birds Flower
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espective of the fact that some oth
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Protected areas in Africa occupy sl
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past few decades, population densit
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Fig. 6.12: Urban Ecosystem and Buil
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Fig. 6.13 Environmental Sustainabil
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Case Study: Sediment Control andAqu
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Fig 6.15: Comparison of Rainfall, D
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South Africa and Bophuthatswana. (D
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of interdependent factors which adv
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Referencesafrol News, 2001: Lake Ch
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United Nations Population Divison (
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SHARING WATERFOR REGIONALINTEGRATIO
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Table 11.1: Some Major Transboundar
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Page 308 and 309: ENSURING THEKNOWLEDGE BASESince anc
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Page 334 and 335: Key Outputs: The first steps for th
Page 336 and 337: Figure 16.6: Number of Radios per 1
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Page 342 and 343: The UNESCO Water Portal is intended
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IMPLEMENTATIONOF TARGETS UNDERTHE A
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Public Participation;(d) Informatio
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a regional framework for Africa as
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Programme SubRegion Estimated Costs
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