African Water Development Report 2006 - United Nations Economic ...

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Box 16.2: Indigenous Knowledge on Climate PredictionThe Turkana of Kenya say that several birds (ground hornbill, green wood hoopoe, spotted eagle owl, and nightjar) and frogs are prophets of rain. In western Kenya people use indicators of frogs, birds, white ants, lightening andrise in swamp waters to forecast rainfall. In Zaria, Nigeria, certain birds indicate a drought. In northeast Tanzania,the indicators of beginning of rains are (in order of frequency of response): increase in temperature, lightening,change in patterns and behaviour of birds, insects and mammals, and three different types of plant changes (flowering,new leaves, grass wilting). In the same area, forecasts of end of rains depends mostly on meteorological factors(ie. drizzling or steady rainfall, wind strength, temp change, etc.), but also fauna (e.g. bee swarms, birds changingcolour) and flora (ripening of seeds, decline in bamboo fluid, etc.).The Fulani of Mauritania predict seasons by the position of the stars; for example, when the big dipper “jungo niiwi”is directly above (ie. August) then it is time for the most abundant rains, and when its tail is pointing to the top thenit is the end of the rainy season. In western Nigeria, farmers start planting when the new leaves of the baobab tree(Adansonia digitata) and Chlorophora excelsa appear, and when the “konkoto” bird stops singing. The quality of therainfall (i.e. its quantity and distribution overtime and space) is usually evaluated after the end of the season, basedprimarily on meteorological factors. For example in north-eastern Tanzania, some factors are the distribution ofrains, fogs, sunshine periods, etc.. Only one record was found of the prediction of the quality of rainfall; namely,the Kamba farmers of Kenya believe that a rainbow means no or little rain will follow.ENSURING THE KNOWLEDGE BASEIndigenous Knowledge on WaterThe treatise of A.S. Ba (1982) provides a rare but detailed look into the “water lore” of the Fulani of Mauritania.They have a detailed art of detecting ground water. Their indicators are based on topography (e.g. shallow aquiferscan be found near natural ponds or in depressions of mountains), on plant species (especially tap-rooted trees suchas Bauhinia rufescens, Tamaris senegalensis, Capparis decidua, and Acacia albida, but also perennial grasses, suchas Vetivera nigritana, and Panicum anababtismum), and the health or vigour of the plants, such as the greenness ofleaves during the year. Other indicators are based on fauna (e.g. wild boars only live where they can dig and findmoist soil; other animals that prefer to stay around moist places are caimans, amphibious lizards, tortoise, band ofbutterflies, some bird species, and many termite hills). The Fulani also are familiar with the geological strata in theirarea, and that they must dig through the whole layer of red or grey clayey soil and arrive at the sandy layer beforefinding ground water. A good quality ground water that is clear, sweet, and has a good mineral content, is indicatedby the presence of Guiera senegalensis, B. rufescens, termite hills, and the depth of wells (the deeper, the betterquality). The best quality natural ponds are indicated by the presence of water lilies, followed by Acacia nilotica,and Mitragyna inermis. Bad, diseased water, is indicated by the presence of the grass Echinochloa pyramidalis. Waterquality is also tested by immersing a leather container in it. The best water does nothing to the leather, and as thequality of water deteriorates, the intensity and duration of the colour of the leather will change to white, black, redor finally yellow/orange. Water quality is also evaluated by its effect on livestock, especially their behaviour afterdrinking (whether they are content or not) and the yield of milk.Indigenous Knowledge on Well ManagementAmong the Wodaabe of Niger, wells are owned by lineage segments, but others are allowed to use them accordingto strict rules (“buto”). In addition, the dry season camps are dispersed and as tar away as 70 km, and aremoved every 20-30 days around the well, to avoid overgrazing. The northern Somali manage communal wellsthrough an elected committee of 3-20 people, called “guddiya warta”. The members of the committee are thewater managers, “sagaale”, who allocate water to the community and guests, guard the well, enforce and deviserules of use, charge fees if any, and maintain the well. The Borana of southern Ethiopia have an elected elder of theclan, “abba ela”, who supervises the well according to Borana laws. A council of elders supervises the Abba ela, andappoints a caretaker if the Abba ela is temporarily absent. The users of the well also form a council, “Cora ela” whohave ultimate authority over the Abba ela and the council of elders. A “father of the watering order” appointedby the Cora ela regulates daily use of the well by appointing two men to supervise the livestock, a man to sweepand clean out the dung, a man to coordinate the action of the line of men and women (also chosen by the fatherof order) who draw water with containers and pass it along to a basin. This line can be 15-20 persons long. Thebasins are plastered with clay every morning, and the well maintained after every rainy season.Source: FAO CF Note 4, 1990 Community Forestry: Herders’ Decision-Making in Natural Resources Management in Arid and Semi-aridAfrica303
African Water Development Report 2006Water Resources Development andManagement – The Knowledge ProcessWater resources development was initially envisagedas mainly a demand driven process ofsatisfying a water need be it for energy, irrigation,domestic water supply or even flood controlat the expense of water as a resource. For manydecades the availability of water was taken forgranted. With the technological advances of themid-1950s, the multipurpose basin-wide conceptbecame prevalent and environmental impact assessmentwas integrated into the planning stage.The development of water resources has thereforepassed through various phases from singlepurpose to multi-purpose projects, graduallycrystallizing into what is now generally referredto as water resources systems (Fig. 16.1). As demandon water resources increased and becamemore complex and the problems of water pollutionand water quality control also began to increase,there emerged the awareness and the needto shift from the minimization of constructioncosts to the maximization of net benefit fromwell-developed water projects, leading to a morecomplex project evaluation criteria mostly basedon economic efficiency.Figure 16.1: Evolution of Water Resources Development and Management304
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AFRICANWATERDEVELOPMENTREPORT2006
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CONTENTSWater for Sustainable Socio
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis is the final v
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The African Water Development Repor
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INTRODUCTION - WATER FOR SUSTAINABL
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WATER FORSUSTAINABLESOCIO-ECONOMICD
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African Water Development Report 20
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INTERNATIONALAND AFRICANMILESTONESN
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INDICATORS -MEASURING THEPROGRESS O
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(i) Specific for a certain stress o
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Water and ecosystemWater and indust
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Purpose: Global water security prov
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Table 5.1: Adopted targets and indi
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Human Development Index (HDI): This
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The Environmental Sustainability In
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Significant Indicators - Libya1. Li
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ReferencesAfrica Facts: http://www.
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FRESHWATERRESOURCES INAFRICAThe mai
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annual flows of rivers and groundwa
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Fig. 4.3: Actual Renewable Water in
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Box 4.1: Water Availability and Ser
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Table 4.9: Surface Water by Watersh
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Table 4.12: Dynamics of Water Use,
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Figure 4.7: Major Groundwater Withd
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Annual freshwater withdrawals in Ea
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Fig. 4.12: Percentage of Domestic,
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Table 4.15: Desalination capacities
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Although some African countries hav
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Fig. 4.17: Water Poverty Index by S
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The problem of wastewater disposal
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FRESHWATER RESOURCES IN AFRICASourc
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Water Conference, December 3-7, 200
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PROTECTINGECOSYSTEMSIN AFRICAThe pr
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abstracted and flow regulated. Irri
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Fig. 6.2: Freshwater Ecosystem Area
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Figure 6.3: Water Availability and
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Table 6.4: Indication of the Microb
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Fertilisers are also a potential th
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Box 6.2Pollution Control - The Ethi
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Fig. 6.2: Freshwater Ecosystem Area
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Region/Country Mammals Birds Flower
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espective of the fact that some oth
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Protected areas in Africa occupy sl
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past few decades, population densit
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Fig. 6.12: Urban Ecosystem and Buil
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Fig. 6.13 Environmental Sustainabil
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Case Study: Sediment Control andAqu
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Fig 6.15: Comparison of Rainfall, D
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South Africa and Bophuthatswana. (D
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of interdependent factors which adv
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Referencesafrol News, 2001: Lake Ch
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United Nations Population Divison (
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Page 262 and 263: SHARING WATERFOR REGIONALINTEGRATIO
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Page 268 and 269: Box 11.3Emerging Principles Underly
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Page 308 and 309: ENSURING THEKNOWLEDGE BASESince anc
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Page 334 and 335: Key Outputs: The first steps for th
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IMPLEMENTATIONOF TARGETS UNDERTHE A
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Public Participation;(d) Informatio
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a regional framework for Africa as
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Programme SubRegion Estimated Costs
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