A-manual-for-writers-of-research-papers-theses-and-dissertations

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disciplines. If you are writing a paper in the natural or physical sciences, mathematics, or anyother technical field, follow the conventions of the discipline.In some disciplines, you may need to use abbreviations not covered here. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary gives many abbreviations from many fields. Anotherresource is chapter 15 of the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition (2003). For style guides invarious disciplines, see the bibliography.If you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your department or university may have specificrequirements for using abbreviations, which are usually available from the office of thesesand dissertations. If you are writing a class paper, your instructor may also ask you to followcertain principles for using abbreviations. Review these requirements before you prepare yourpaper. They take precedence over the guidelines suggested here.24.1 General Principles24.1.1 Types of AbbreviationsTerms can be shortened, or abbreviated, in several ways. When a term is shortened to only thefirst letters of each word and pronounced as a single word (NATO, AIDS), it is called anacronym; if the letters are pronounced as a series of letters (EU, PBS), it is called aninitialism. Other terms are shortened through contraction: just the first and last letters of theterm are retained (Mr., Dr.), or the last letters are dropped (ed., Tues.). This chapter treats allof these forms under the general term abbreviations, with distinctions between types noted asrelevant.24.1.2 When to Use AbbreviationsIn most papers, use abbreviations sparingly in text because they can make your writing seemeither too informal or too technical. This chapter covers types of abbreviations that arepreferred over spelled-out terms and others that are considered acceptable in academic writingif used consistently.If your local guidelines allow it, you may use abbreviations for names, titles, and otherterms used frequently in your paper. Give the full term on first reference, followed by theabbreviation in parentheses. For subsequent references, use the abbreviation consistently. Ifyou use more than a few such abbreviations, consider adding a list of abbreviations to thefront matter of the paper to aid readers who might miss your first reference to an abbreviation(see A.2.1).Abbreviations are more common, and are often required, outside the text of the paper. Thischapter discusses some abbreviations that may be used in tables, figures, and citations. Foradditional discussion of abbreviations in tables and figures, see chapter 26; for abbreviationsin bibliography-style citations, see 16.1.6 and chapter 17; for abbreviations in reference list–style citations, see 18.1.6 and chapter 19.www.itpub.net
24.1.3 How to Format AbbreviationsAlthough abbreviations follow the general principles discussed here, there are manyexceptions.Capitalization. Abbreviations are given in all capital letters, all lowercase letters, or acombination.BCp.Gov.CEOa m.Dist. Atty.U.S.kgPhDPunctuation. In general, abbreviations given in all capital letters do not include periods,while those given in lowercase or a combination of capital and lowercase letters have aperiod after each abbreviated element. However, as you can see from the examples above,there are exceptions: the abbreviation U.S. includes periods (see 24.3.1); metric units ofmeasure (see 24.5) are in lowercase without periods; and the abbreviation PhD has noperiods. Other exceptions are noted throughout this chapter.Spacing. In general, do not leave a space between letters in acronyms (NATO) andinitialisms (PBS), but do leave a space between elements in abbreviations formed throughshortening (Dist. Atty.). If an abbreviation contains an ampersand (&), do not leave spacesaround it (Texas A&M). For spaces in personal names, see 24.2.1.Typography. Do not italicize abbreviations.Indefinite articles. When an abbreviation follows an indefinite article, choose between aand an depending on how the abbreviation is read aloud. Acronyms (NATO, AIDS) arepronounced as words; initialisms (EU) are read as a series of letters.member nation of NATOa NATO memberperson with AIDSan AIDS patientmember nation of the EUan EU member24.2 Names and Titles
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A Manual for Writers of Research Pa
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Indexing BooksNancy C. MulvanyGetti
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Part I Research and Writing: From P
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15 General Introduction to Citation
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Appendix: Paper Format and Submissi
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that have emerged since 2003 and th
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We first discuss the aims of resear
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You may think your report will add
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1.2 Three Kinds of Questions That R
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That impulse is understandable. But
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You might even post those five goal
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knowledge:masks in religious ceremo
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9. Look for questions that other re
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esearch. You can, of course, look f
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If you can think of only one or two
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3.3.2 Skim the Internet3.3.3 Talk t
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understand what you think until you
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translator(s)What data identify the
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(Bibliographic Index is a bibliogra
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Skim bibliographies of recent books
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influential a source is by how ofte
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4.5 Review Your Progress4.5.1 Searc
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PART-WHOLE CONTRADICTIONS. You can
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label the places (see fig. 4.1, wit
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major reasons, and so on). Highligh
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two, and if you take notes on a com
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4.6 Manage Moments of Normal PanicT
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good research report, readers hear
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think your answer is significant, i
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differently, you must acknowledge a
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Around here, when it's a warm night
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To accept that claim, readers must
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5.6 Assemble an ArgumentHere is a s
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6.2.6).6.2 Create a Plan That Meets
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2. Rephrase your question as a lack
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You can follow the same procedure t
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its end expressing its point. That
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7.10 Guard against Inappropriate As
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y their lack of original thinking.
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Now might I do it [kill him] pat, n
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As one invention begets another one
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2. What help must you acknowledge i
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families were headed by a single mo
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A.3.1 on creating and inserting tab
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1. Include only relevant data. If y
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BAR CHARTS. Bar charts communicate
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Figure 8.7 shows how a stacked bar
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that states the claim you want the
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www.itpub.net
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9.2 Make Sure the Body of Your Repo
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Of each section, ask What question
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give them a framework for understan
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you just surveyed:Ever since Girola
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Be sure to include in these openers
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11.5 Give It Up and Print It OutYou
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principal demonstrates that she is
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squeezed into so little volume chan
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Most instructors and editors do agr
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problem is the ones you are sure of
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comments so that you can do better
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13.1.2 Understand the Difference be
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of us do), you can then skip to the
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want to listen to them. Your aims a
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15.2.2 Information Required in Cita
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journal, collection, or series it a
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deciding how much change counts as
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You can assemble your bibliography
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information about the source (autho
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3. Author(s) Plus Editor or Transla
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16.1.3 CapitalizationCapitalize mos
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university may specify that you sho
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You may choose to include in your b
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16.3.5 Complex NotesCITATIONS. If y
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full note.N: 5. Jan H. Kalicki and
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number of a reference is the same a
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17.1.2 Title17.1.3 Edition17.1.4 Vo
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17.7 Informally Published Electroni
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17.1 BooksBooks reflect a wider ran
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4. Timothy E. Fulop and Albert J. R
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Many Spanish last names are compoun
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B: Aaron, Henry. Why Is Welfare So
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B: Pelikan, Jaroslav. Christian Doc
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Cambridge, MA: MIT PressChapel Hill
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illustration number.N: 50. Richard
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N: 3. Anne Carr and Douglas J. Schu
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download or other delivery from a b
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B: Jenkins, J. Craig, David Jacobs,
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B: Schapiro, Mark. “New Power for
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Articles published online. For onli
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parenthetical notes (see 16.4.3). Y
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N: 34. Hazel V. Clark, Mesopotamia:
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17.6.3 Interviews and Personal Comm
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Locating information. Although some
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consistently, and adapt the general
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For video recordings, see 17.8.5; f
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with Harry N. Abrams, 1998. Publish
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note.N: 4. Senator Kennedy of Massa
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Executive departments, bureaus, and
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Lower federal courts. For lower fed
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them in your bibliography, although
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Style: The Basic Form18.1 Basic Pat
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In reference list entries, separate
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R: Chapter Author's Last Name, Chap
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If your reference list includes two
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18.3.1 Placement in TextWhenever yo
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citations. See 16.3.2-16.3.4 for no
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19.5.8 CD-ROMs or DVD-ROMs19.5.9 On
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This chapter provides detailed info
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(Menchú 1999, 50-51)(Adorno and Be
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Van Rensselaer, StephenMedici, Lore
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Dates. Use a comma to set off dates
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When you cite an edition other than
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Some numbered series have existed f
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SPECIAL TYPES OF LOCATORS. Some par
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Calhoun, Craig. 2005. Foreword to M
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19.2.1 Author's NameGive authors' n
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For a reference list entry, give th
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the magazine in place of the author
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15.4.1). Note that a URL alone is n
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traditional or shorter abbreviation
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In your reference list, cite works
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19.6.3 Interviews and Personal Comm
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followed by to and the name of the
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enclosed in quotation marks. Use he
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P: (Federal Express, “Caveman”
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If your paper is in literary studie
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R: U.S. Congress. Congressional Rec
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U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1975. Me
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language, provide the page number a
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—New York Sun, February 13, 1917E
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class paper) includes many foreign
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www.itpub.net
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CHAPTERS. Most theses and dissertat
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that appear together without interv
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Examples of such material would be
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A.3 Submission RequirementsA.3.1 Pr
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Keep a table that cannot be present
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multimedia files.BibliographyThere
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The Booklist. Chicago: American Lib
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1. Bowman, John S., ed. The Cambrid
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Visual Representation of Data (Tabl
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4. Walford, Albert J., Anthony Chal
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University Press, 2004.2. Ward, Sir
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3. Øyen, Else, ed. Comparative Met
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http://www netlibrary.com.2. Warner
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EducationGeography4. Journal of Eco
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5. Garner, Bryan A. The Elements of
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Sociology3. Kennedy, J. Library Res
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1. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scient
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Chemistry4. Genetics Citation Index
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MathematicsPhysics2. Seyfert, Carl
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Chicago. He is the author of Style:
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of abbreviations list, 389in biblio
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See also figuresBC, 328, 339BCE, 32
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visual and performing arts, sources
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URLs, 177of words derived from pers
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working hypothesis as, 50-51See als
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headline-style capitalization and,
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of journal articles, citation of in
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drama. See plays; theater, citation
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eference list-style citation of, 25
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highlights in, 86-87inserted into f
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front matter, 377-391; abstract, 39
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See also figures; graphicsgrouped b
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methods of research illustrated on,
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as topic source, 14, 17journal writ
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magazinesbibliography-style citatio
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newspapersabbreviation of, 336-337a
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lists and, 329-330with names, 323-3
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multivolume dissertation, 375-376te
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in figure captions, 370function of,
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slash separating lines of, 350posse
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in glossary, 390line breaks and hyp
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from foreign language, 312integrati
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purpose of, 221specific requirement
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esearch method page, 390Reverend, u
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sentencesquoted material ending in,
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See also literature review; note-ta
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hard copy submission, 407-408prepar
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3-em dash, 148-149, 304timeabbrevia
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See also questions, researchtransit
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as primary sources, 25reference lis
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www.itpub.net
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