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Dimensions of Morality (mean):
Courage: Courage is a mean between fear
and confidence. A character is courageous who
stands their ground before awe-inspiring and terrible
things. Though courageous characters fear, they
face things as is appropriate. A character is courageous
who faces and fears the right things, from the
right motive, in the right way, at the right time, and
who feels confidence under the corresponding conditions.
A courageous character is keen in the moment
of action and quiet beforehand, while rash
characters wish for dangers beforehand and withdraw
during danger. A character is more likely to
display courage when undisturbed in sudden alarms
and dangers that are unforeseen. If a danger is unforeseen,
then the reaction of a character is more
likely to be caused by their disposition and less from
preparation. Foreseen dangers allow a character to
calculate their reaction. Characters are considered
courageous when they face something painful. Further,
if they take pleasure in facing what is painful,
then they are expressing and practicing the moral
of courage. Following are 5 types of characters who
are commonly mistaken to be courageous, though
they are not:
1. The courage of the citizen-soldier is most
like true courage for it is due to morality,
but not if they are compelled by their rulers
or are encouraged by officers behind them
or fight in trenches (because trenches physically
discourage retreat).
2. Experience with regard to particular facts
is also mistaken to be courage. For example,
those who have had the most experience in
war seem courageous, because the others do
not know the nature of the facts.
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3. Passion is sometimes mistaken for courage.
Those who act from passion, like wild beasts
rushing at those who have wounded them,
are thought to be brave. Courageous characters
are also passionate. While courageous
characters act for the sake of honor and are
aided by passion, wild beasts act under the
influence of pain and attack because they
have been wounded or are afraid. A character
who attacks due to pain or fear, attacks
due to the strength of their feeling and not
for the sake of honor. A passionate attack,
however, is something akin to courage.
4. Sanguine characters are not necessarily courageous.
A sanguine character who is experienced
in combat is confident in danger because
they have conquered often and against
many foes. Therefore, a sanguine character
who is experienced in combat thinks they
are the strongest and can suffer nothing.
Drunken characters also behave this way;
they become sanguine. When their adventures
do not succeed, however, sanguine
characters run away.
5. Characters who are ignorant of danger also
appear courageous, though they are similar
to sanguine characters who are experienced
in combat. Characters who are inexperienced
in combat are inferior to those with
experience in terms of courage, since they
lack self-reliance. A sanguine character who
is experienced in combat will hold their
ground for a time, but those who feel deceived
about combat flee if they know or
suspect that these are different from what
they supposed.
Chapter 4: Disposition