Reduction and Elimination in Philosophy and the Sciences

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notion of time and requires that something exists in order for time to exist. The generative conception can accommodate backwardly finite but closed universes that begin at a singularity. But it is hard to conceive of our universe as such, since so little information about it could be stored at such a single spatial point. The initial conditions would have to consist in finite values of various fundamental parameters at that point. Theories of the universe based on general relativity that ignore quantum effects yield a singularity with infinite values of the fundamental parameters at that point. But such a singularity is not a candidate for an initial slice as the values of the parameters are not well defined. Recent efforts to construct a theory of quantum gravity for our universe that integrates general relativity and quantum theory offer hope of avoiding this problem of a Big Bang singularity at which parameters cannot be defined. They mostly have the consequence that the linear temporal ordering among events breaks down, i.e. that time doesn’t make sense, close to the Big Bang when the universe is smaller than the Plank scale. If universes in accordance with such theories are coherent, they too would lack an initial condition and so it would seem could not be generated. A second problem for the view that our universe is generated concerns the direction of generation. For any generated universe there is an extrinsic direction of time given by the direction of generation (and by the temporal asymmetry in the notion of a fundamental dispositional property). And in our universe there are temporal asymmetries found in intrinsic features that mark a subjective direction of time. They are generally regarded as based on the thermodynamic condition of increasing entropy. Such asymmetries include the way actions affect the future not the past, organisms age, and scattered rubble doesn’t suddenly cohere to constitute a building. A problem arises for the generative conception if there is no good reason to believe that these intrinsic and extrinsic directions coincide. For part of the appeal of the view that our universe is generated comes from its incorporating the compelling intuition that what is present was generated by the laws and what seems subjectively to be the past. Why might the direction of generation and our subjective direction of time diverge? The direction in which time seems to be flowing in the universe might be the opposite to that in which the universe is generated. From our perspective on the direction of time we say that our universe is 13 billion years old, but if the universe has a finite duration and its fundamental laws are time-reversal invariant, then it could be generated from the other end, and we should say instead that we have another 13 billion years or so before the Big Crunch, if we take the direction of generation to be the direction of time. Given these assumptions then, it is logically possible that our universe is generated in the counterintuitive direction. However, this should worry us no more than the logical possibility that we are brains-in-vats, so long as we have good reason to believe that our universe is generated in the intuitive direction. Tim Maudlin (2007, pp. 130-5) addresses this problem for the generative conception, adding to our assumptions of a temporally finite universe and timereversal invariant fundamental laws the empirically well supported assumption that there is low entropy at one temporal end of the universe and high entropy at the other. Maudlin’s idea, as I understand it, is that we could explain Two Problems for NonHumean Views of Laws of Nature — Noa Latham why entropy increases given the assumption of the fundamental generative laws and the condition that entropy starts off low. But we could not explain a decrease in entropy given the assumption of the laws and the condition that entropy starts off high. As we observe an entropy gradient over time in our universe, this asymmetry in explanation makes it much more reasonable to suppose that the universe is being generated from the lower entropy end than from the higher entropy end, and hence that the intuitive direction of time coincides with the direction of generation. Where I think Maudlin goes wrong is in setting up a biased contrast that misleadingly gives the impression that for possible universes with our generative laws there are in a natural sense more of them with low to high entropy gradients than there are with high to low entropy gradients. The semblance of asymmetry comes from taking as one option that the universe has a low entropy beginning, ignoring knowledge that it has a high entropy state at its other end, and pointing out that it would be highly likely to evolve into a high entropy state. This is then compared with the option that the universe has a high entropy beginning, ignoring knowledge that it has a low entropy state at its other end, and pointing out that it would be very unlikely to evolve into a low entropy state. Each of these options embraces something and ignores something we know about our universe. But what the first option embraces—that the universe has a low entropy state—is something that would be considered highly improbable if we knew nothing about which universe was actual, while what the second option embraces—that the universe has a high entropy state—is something that would be considered highly probable if we didn’t know which universe was actual. I suggest that to determine what it is reasonable to believe about our universe we should not skew our understanding by suppressing knowledge in this asymmetrical way, but should begin with what we do know, namely that the actual universe contains an entropy gradient with extremely low entropy at one end. The salient fact is then surely that from the nature of timereversal invariant laws, there is a natural 1-1 mapping of universes with a low to high entropy gradient onto qualitatively identical universes with a high to low entropy gradient. This leaves us without a reason for believing our universe is generated from the low entropy end rather than the high entropy end. Nevertheless, there might be empirical reasons to reject the two assumptions we were making—of a temporally finite universe and of time-reversal invariant fundamental laws. Rejecting either of these assumptions would support belief in a coincidence of the direction of generation and the subjective direction of time. For if the universe is closed at one end and infinite at the other, it could be generated from the unique slice at one end but could not be generated in the other direction. Current estimates of the rate of expansion of the universe suggest that it is forwardly infinite, though this could be revised if evidence of a lot more “dark matter” arises. And although both general relativity and the Schroedinger equation are time-reversal invariant, a quantum theory involving a Collapse Postulate is not. Whether such a postulate is among the fundamental laws of our universe is currently a debated feature of the interpretation of quantum theory. But should it be so, and (as is widely supposed) there cannot be a time-reverse of such a postulate, then the universe couldn’t be generated in the counterintuitive direction. 197
So science may grant both initial conditions and a secure belief that the universe is generated in the intuitive direction. However, it is disconcerting that the generative conception of fundamental laws should rest on such unsettled scientific theory. And this empirical sensitivity undermines the idea that the generative conception captures a commonsense metaphysical view. It is hard to rest content that science will bail out the generative conception. For if there are coherent epistemically possible ways our universe might be which do not meet the empirical requirements for the generative conception, we need a way to understand them. 198 Two Problems for NonHumean Views of Laws of Nature — Noa Latham Literature Maudlin, Tim 2007 The Metaphysics within Physics Oxford University Press.
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31 Alexander Hieke Hannes Leitgeb H
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Reduktion und Elimination in Philos
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Distributors Die Österreichische L
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6 Inhalt / Contents Wittgenstein me
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8 Inhalt / Contents The Evolution o
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Formal Mechanisms for Reduction in
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4. Property language and theoretica
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imperatives, or commands in the for
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Referential Practice and the Lure o
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The Augustinian account confuses mo
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hurried to fix it on the page. The
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The Essence (?) of Color, According
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Literature Austin, James 1980 “Wi
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Wittgenstein’s Externalism - Gett
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Informal Reduction E.P. Brandon, Ca
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An Anti-Reductionist Argument Based
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An Anti-Reductionist Argument Based
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Did I Do It? -Yeah, You Did! Wittge
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Literature Did I Do It? -Yeah, You
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tween the two approaches. The task
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On Two Recent Defenses of The Simpl
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On Two Recent Defenses of The Simpl
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Queen Victoria’s Dying Thoughts T
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Diagonalization. The Liar Paradox,
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Proof: Given a function ƒ from con
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that I am sure that it is true that
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experiencing something as a red pen
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There can be Causal without Ontolog
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There can be Causal without Ontolog
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objects. But they also leave unansw
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The Knower Paradox and the Quantifi
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The Knower Paradox and the Quantifi
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lent. It also implies that an inven
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The Scapegoat Theory of Causality M
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We may have evolved a specialized c
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easoning have their source in the l
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Wittgenstein on Frazer and Explanat
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genstein 1993, p. 143). In order to
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an adequate syntactic analysis of o
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Wittgenstein meets ÖGS: Wovon man
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Wittgenstein meets ÖGS: Wovon man
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3. Der Elementarsatz wird als Relat
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Literatur Glock, Hans Johann 2006
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Explaining the Brain: Ruthless Redu
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Occam’s Razor in the Theory of Th
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Literature Campbell, Donald T. 1987
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Die Nichtreduzierbarkeit der klassi
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Literatur Die Nichtreduzierbarkeit
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Let T I be the minimal theory of tr
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Does Bradley’s Regress Support No
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(3) Mutatis mutandis, realism has t
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Zeitliche Ontologie und zeitliche R
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Betrachtung ontologischer Fragen, M
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The decisive consequences of this a
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Benacerraf and Bad Company (An Atta
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offer a solution to the bad company
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Literature Benacerraf, Paul 1965
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"PA" by using "PA* ", at least at t
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Hard Naturalism and its Puzzles Ren
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The Mind-Body-Problem and Score-Kee
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mental properties, for instance, or
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kommt es zu einem gravierenden Miss
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Reduction Revisited: The Ontologica
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4. Conclusion Reduction Revisited:
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All in all, we have seen that reduc
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Physicalism Without the A Priori Pa
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Literature Cartwright, Nancy 1999:
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Wittgensteins Projektionsmethode al
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Schlussbemerkungen Wittgensteins Pr
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intentional states requires functio
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Relating Theories. Models and Struc
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Literature Relating Theories. Model
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e invoked in response to the questi
Page 148 and 149: Do Brains Think? Christopher Humphr
Page 150 and 151: 4. Conclusion So do brains think or
Page 152 and 153: How Metaphors Alter the World-Pictu
Page 154 and 155: The Modal Supervenience of the Conc
Page 156 and 157: Literature van der Auwera, Johan an
Page 158 and 159: 3. The Determination of Form by Syn
Page 160 and 161: Zwischen Humes Gesetz und „Sollen
Page 162 and 163: Zwischen Humes Gesetz und „Sollen
Page 164 and 165: Assessing Humean Supervenience Amir
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Page 168 and 169: Aus der obigen Definition folgt, da
Page 170 and 171: Ding-Ontology of Aristotle vs. Sach
Page 172 and 173: Ding-Ontology of Aristotle vs. Sach
Page 174 and 175: How do Moral Principles Figure in M
Page 176 and 177: “Downward Causation”: Emergent,
Page 178 and 179: “Downward Causation”: Emergent,
Page 180 and 181: A with distinguished subset Z of te
Page 182 and 183: A Metaphysically Moderate Version o
Page 184 and 185: Literature Balashov, Yuri 2002 ''Wh
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Page 188 and 189: Problems with Psychophysical Identi
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Page 194 and 195: Four Anti-reductionist Dogmas in th
Page 196 and 197: Four Anti-reductionist Dogmas in th
Page 200 and 201: Some Remarks on Wittgenstein and Ty
Page 202 and 203: Some Remarks on Wittgenstein and Ty
Page 204 and 205: concrete particulars can be subject
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Page 208 and 209: Metaphorische Bedeutung als virtus
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Page 212 and 213: „Vom Weißdorn und vom Propheten
Page 214 and 215: „Die Einheit hören“ - Einige
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Page 218 and 219: S4) the necessity of arithmetic is
Page 220 and 221: Getting out from Inside: Why the Cl
Page 222 and 223: Dispensing with Particulars: Unders
Page 224 and 225: Literature Dispensing with Particul
Page 226 and 227: Reichenbach’s Concept of Logical
Page 228 and 229: Defining Ontological Naturalism Mar
Page 230 and 231: Literature Jackson, Frank 1986. “
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Page 236 and 237: Properties and Reduction between Me
Page 238 and 239: Does this mean that metaphysics sho
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Page 242 and 243: The Writing of Nietzsche and Wittge
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Naturalistic Ethics: A Logical Posi
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Literature Kant, Immanuel 2006 Crit
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What we now require is a bridge the
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Species, Variability, and Integrati
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could mention the many sorts of iso
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to work this way. Classic examples
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The Key Problems of KC Matteo Pleba
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have embraced the myth of prose: it
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5. Prior’s Problem As Patrick Bla
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Reductionism in Axiology: the Case
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developing of cancer tissue in huma
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(2) One-way Nagelian bridge princip
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Rethinking the Modal Argument again
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Rethinking the Modal Argument again
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that we are to find the features we
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Atypical Rational Agency Paul Raymo
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Literature Anscombe, G. E. M. 1957
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situation bieten sich keine Kriteri
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Two Reductions of ‘rule’ Dana R
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one that could take place, but does
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physics is not able to make, since
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Wittgenstein’s Attitudes Fabien S
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view of logic, in accordance with h
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Warum man auf transzendentalphiloso
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Making the Mind Higher-Level Elizab
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Literature Churchland, P. M. (1995)
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Zwischen Humes Gesetz und „Sollen
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Mental Causation: A Lesson from Act
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Again, this is mistaken. Non-reduct
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auf alle Arten von kontingenten Pro
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Reduction, Sets, and Properties Ben
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Literature Egan, Andy (2004): ‘Se
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there is a tension between evaluati
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The Elimination of Meaning in Compu
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sufficient to explain all of the em
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that 'A' and 'A' could never be tok
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the necktie sense) can differ in wh
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Supervenience and ‘Should’ Arto
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word 'norm' can be thought to expre
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Rule-following as Coordination: A G
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vast majority are bent: gruesome, g
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human life, the violent condition o
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A Division in Mind. The Misconceive
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A Division in Mind. The Misconceive
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could then deduce (1c) and conclude
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Neutral Monism. A Miraculous, Incoh
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Neutral Monism. A Miraculous, Incoh
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A somewhat Eliminativist Proposal a
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Impliziert der intentionale Redukti
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Impliziert der intentionale Redukti
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Structure of the Paradoxes, Structu
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Structure of the Paradoxes, Structu
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that he was working on a translatio
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Objects of Perception, Objects of S
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Objects of Perception, Objects of S
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Let us take the example of the hypo
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Reducing Sets to Modalities Rafał
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variables ai that (under an interpr
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Are Lamarckian Explanations Fully R
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A Note on Tractatus 5.521 Nuno Vent
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And he goes on saying, referring to
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The Place of Theory Reduction in th
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Ethik als irreduzibles Supervenienz
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unabhängig von denen ihrer Mitglie
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Das ‘schwierige Problem’ des Be
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The Supervenience Argument, Levels,
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The Supervenience Argument, Levels,
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their relations both to the physica
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On the Characterization of Objects
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On the Characterization of Objects
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The Functional Unity of Special Sci
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size, location, temporal characteri
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Transcendental Philosophy and Mind-
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From Topology to Logic. The Neural
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From Topology to Logic. The Neural
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The Calculus of Inductive Construct
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The Four-Color Theorem, Testimony a
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experience. Of course, a detailed a
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Clearly x = y → x = ext y holds,
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Intentional Fundamentalism Petri Yl
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The second dimension to be consider
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The very existence of the special s
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Heil, J. (1999), “Multiple Realiz
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independent of what is the fact, fa
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415
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Publications of the Austrian Ludwig
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