Reduction and Elimination in Philosophy and the Sciences

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Literature Kant, Immanuel 2006 Critique of Practical Reason, trans. and ed. Mary Gregor, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kant, Immanuel 2006 Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, trans. and ed. Mary Gregor, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hare, R.M. 2003 The Language of Morals, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Schlick, Moritz 1959 “What is the Aim of Ethics?”, in Logical Positivism, ed. Ayer, A.J, New York: The Free Press, 247-265. Naturalistic Ethics: A Logical Positivistic Approach — Sibel Oktar Schlick, Moritz 1959a “The Foundation of Knowledge”, in Logical Positivism, ed. A.J. Ayer, New York: The Free Press, 209-227. Wittgenstein, Ludwig 2005 Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, trans. D.F Pears and B.F. McGuinness, London: Routledge Classics. Wittgenstein, Ludwig 1965 “A Lecture on Ethics”, The Philosophical Review, 74, 3-12. Wittgenstein, Ludwig 2005 Philosophical Investigations, trans. G.E.M. Anscombe, Oxford: Blackwell. 249
The Evolution of Morals Andrew Oldenquist, Columbus, Ohio, USA 250 “Any animal with social instincts would inevitably acquire a moral sense as soon as its intellectual powers became like those of humans.” Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, Ch. 4 We have ancestors, 100,000 years ago, I’ll guess, who had no morality–no moral concepts, moral beliefs or moral codes. We have more recent ancestors who did have moral beliefs and moral codes. What happened in between? By what describable changes did our earlier ancestors’ anger at theft become moral disapproval? There are two parts to my explanation of this change: an account of how most of the content of current morality resulted from the evolution of love and human sociality, and second, bridge theories, which are lists of word usage descriptions that tell us when a positive or negative feeling turns into a moral belief. From facts about innate sociality and language I shall derive “S believes A is wrong,” but not “A is wrong.” Moreover, unlike most definitions of “good” or “morally wrong,” a description of usage can convey the function of moral language without designating anything that is morally right or wrong. The consensus of paleoethnologists is that humans evolved biologically to be social animals, which included the evolution of certain wants, fears and anxieties required for social living and which then were culturally reinforced. Even in pre-linguistic societies some behavior had to be taboo and deterred by fear of punishment or banishment. Philosophers and scientists have long tried to explain altruistic motives, given that they appear to diminish likelihood of survival and therefore ought to be selected against in evolution (Hamilton, 1964). It is widely believed either that only perceived self interest can move us to act, or that both morality and self-interest are effective motives for action. Both alternatives depend on a false dichotomy that gets its plausibility from the distinction between particulars and kinds. The object of self-interest is a particular, not a kind of thing: my self-interest attends to me but even in the same circumstances not necessarily to my clone or identical twin. But morality, it is said, may judge a person only by qualities other people can have too such as cruelty, kindness or unfairness. No rule of social morality can refer to me and consequently moral terms designate qualities, not particulars. However, group egoism generates moral judgments that combine descriptions and egocentric particulars: “Because it’s mine” is as fundamental as “because it’s me.” Group egoism explains a large part of social morality including obligations based on love and loyalty to my mate, my children, my clan or country. It can conflict with egoism as well as with impartial principles. It will not do simply to say that if I may do something everyone may, for the natural response is, “Every what?” Every fellow club member, fellow American, fellow Christian, fellow human being, rational being, suffering being? These nested and overlapping domains of course make morals complicated. Social morality’s constraint within domains defined by group loyalties and social identities shows there is no sharp line between self-interest and altruism and that the possibility of altruism is not the fundamental question of moral psychology. The neo- Darwinian explanation of group loyalties as well as kin selection is that they are non-universalizable outside of a designated group because they fix on the physical coordinates of where one’s DNA type is likely to be located, or where protectors or caretakers of it such as one’s clan or country are located. 1. Kin selection, as developed by William D. Hamilton (Hamilton, 1964), is caring for relatives according to their degree of relatedness and it evolved independently of motives or understanding, as in the clear case of the social insects. Human parents value their child, who has one half of each parent’s DNA, more than their grandchild, who has one fourth, and their grandchildren more than mere friends. 2. Increasingly prolonged infancy and the dependence of young children were made safer by the evolution of parental love, loss of estrus and sexual romantic love. Each of these increased the likelihood that dependent young children would have both parents around long enough to survive on their own. Love, like loyalty, makes certain behavior feel necessary independently of considerations of self interest. It is our strongest passion, explains our strongest feelings of obligation because they most directly protect our DNA, and shape our world. Love is directed to a particular and not to a kind of thing because it evolved to protect one’s children, who have a particular location. 3. A number of mutually reinforcing things evolved to make us innately social, including kin selection, love, group loyalty, the felt need to belong, and fear of banishment. Feelings of security when living amongst familiar people with familiar social practices and in familiar spaces, fear of being outcast, and the world-wide development of ritual and ceremony, are all constitutive of human sociality. Kin selection cannot explain altruism on the broader level of the clan. What was selected for was clan loyalty and other varieties of group egoism which do not depend at all on how close one is genetically to fellow clan members. Group loyalty was selected for because people in clans were safer than those who lived alone or just with immediate family. Evolved emotional predispositions include our need to belong to groups and acquire social identities and loyalties, all of which makes the group fare better and thereby protect us better than if there were no group loyalties and social identities. Love, kin selection and innate sociality constitute the evolutionary basis of social morality and explain actions felt to be necessary independently of self interest. Arriving more recently than kin selection and love, loyalty made individuals emotionally dependent on clans and willing to sacrifice for them. This is in our DNA because those who clove to their clan were more likely to survive and pass on this disposition, whereas those who lacked such an attachment were more likely to wander off and starve, be killed by an enemy tribe or be dinner for a big cat. Another way to view a clan is as an advantageous environment to which individuals adapted.
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31 Alexander Hieke Hannes Leitgeb H
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Reduktion und Elimination in Philos
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Distributors Die Österreichische L
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6 Inhalt / Contents Wittgenstein me
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8 Inhalt / Contents The Evolution o
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Formal Mechanisms for Reduction in
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4. Property language and theoretica
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imperatives, or commands in the for
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Referential Practice and the Lure o
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The Augustinian account confuses mo
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hurried to fix it on the page. The
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The Essence (?) of Color, According
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Literature Austin, James 1980 “Wi
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Wittgenstein’s Externalism - Gett
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Informal Reduction E.P. Brandon, Ca
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An Anti-Reductionist Argument Based
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An Anti-Reductionist Argument Based
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Did I Do It? -Yeah, You Did! Wittge
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Literature Did I Do It? -Yeah, You
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tween the two approaches. The task
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On Two Recent Defenses of The Simpl
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On Two Recent Defenses of The Simpl
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Queen Victoria’s Dying Thoughts T
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Diagonalization. The Liar Paradox,
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Proof: Given a function ƒ from con
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that I am sure that it is true that
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experiencing something as a red pen
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There can be Causal without Ontolog
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There can be Causal without Ontolog
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objects. But they also leave unansw
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The Knower Paradox and the Quantifi
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The Knower Paradox and the Quantifi
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lent. It also implies that an inven
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The Scapegoat Theory of Causality M
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We may have evolved a specialized c
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easoning have their source in the l
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Wittgenstein on Frazer and Explanat
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genstein 1993, p. 143). In order to
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an adequate syntactic analysis of o
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Wittgenstein meets ÖGS: Wovon man
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Wittgenstein meets ÖGS: Wovon man
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3. Der Elementarsatz wird als Relat
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Literatur Glock, Hans Johann 2006
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Explaining the Brain: Ruthless Redu
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Occam’s Razor in the Theory of Th
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Literature Campbell, Donald T. 1987
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Die Nichtreduzierbarkeit der klassi
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Literatur Die Nichtreduzierbarkeit
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Let T I be the minimal theory of tr
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Does Bradley’s Regress Support No
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(3) Mutatis mutandis, realism has t
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Zeitliche Ontologie und zeitliche R
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Betrachtung ontologischer Fragen, M
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The decisive consequences of this a
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Benacerraf and Bad Company (An Atta
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offer a solution to the bad company
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Literature Benacerraf, Paul 1965
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"PA" by using "PA* ", at least at t
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Hard Naturalism and its Puzzles Ren
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The Mind-Body-Problem and Score-Kee
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mental properties, for instance, or
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kommt es zu einem gravierenden Miss
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Reduction Revisited: The Ontologica
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4. Conclusion Reduction Revisited:
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All in all, we have seen that reduc
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Physicalism Without the A Priori Pa
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Literature Cartwright, Nancy 1999:
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Wittgensteins Projektionsmethode al
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Schlussbemerkungen Wittgensteins Pr
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intentional states requires functio
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Relating Theories. Models and Struc
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Literature Relating Theories. Model
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e invoked in response to the questi
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Do Brains Think? Christopher Humphr
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4. Conclusion So do brains think or
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How Metaphors Alter the World-Pictu
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The Modal Supervenience of the Conc
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Literature van der Auwera, Johan an
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3. The Determination of Form by Syn
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Zwischen Humes Gesetz und „Sollen
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Assessing Humean Supervenience Amir
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determination thesis; it fails as a
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Aus der obigen Definition folgt, da
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Ding-Ontology of Aristotle vs. Sach
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Ding-Ontology of Aristotle vs. Sach
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How do Moral Principles Figure in M
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“Downward Causation”: Emergent,
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“Downward Causation”: Emergent,
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A with distinguished subset Z of te
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A Metaphysically Moderate Version o
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Literature Balashov, Yuri 2002 ''Wh
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“In der Frage liegt ein Fehler”
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Problems with Psychophysical Identi
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identity theory, or as a predecesso
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of the world. It only matters that
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Four Anti-reductionist Dogmas in th
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Four Anti-reductionist Dogmas in th
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notion of time and requires that so
Page 200 and 201: Some Remarks on Wittgenstein and Ty
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Page 204 and 205: concrete particulars can be subject
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Page 212 and 213: „Vom Weißdorn und vom Propheten
Page 214 and 215: „Die Einheit hören“ - Einige
Page 216 and 217: „Die Einheit hören“ - Einige
Page 218 and 219: S4) the necessity of arithmetic is
Page 220 and 221: Getting out from Inside: Why the Cl
Page 222 and 223: Dispensing with Particulars: Unders
Page 224 and 225: Literature Dispensing with Particul
Page 226 and 227: Reichenbach’s Concept of Logical
Page 228 and 229: Defining Ontological Naturalism Mar
Page 230 and 231: Literature Jackson, Frank 1986. “
Page 232 and 233: properties are located. This proces
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Page 236 and 237: Properties and Reduction between Me
Page 238 and 239: Does this mean that metaphysics sho
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Page 242 and 243: The Writing of Nietzsche and Wittge
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Page 248 and 249: Naturalistic Ethics: A Logical Posi
Page 252 and 253: What we now require is a bridge the
Page 254 and 255: Species, Variability, and Integrati
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Page 260 and 261: The Key Problems of KC Matteo Pleba
Page 262 and 263: have embraced the myth of prose: it
Page 264 and 265: 5. Prior’s Problem As Patrick Bla
Page 266 and 267: Reductionism in Axiology: the Case
Page 268 and 269: developing of cancer tissue in huma
Page 270 and 271: (2) One-way Nagelian bridge princip
Page 272 and 273: Rethinking the Modal Argument again
Page 274 and 275: Rethinking the Modal Argument again
Page 276 and 277: that we are to find the features we
Page 278 and 279: Atypical Rational Agency Paul Raymo
Page 280 and 281: Literature Anscombe, G. E. M. 1957
Page 282 and 283: situation bieten sich keine Kriteri
Page 284 and 285: Two Reductions of ‘rule’ Dana R
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Page 290 and 291: Wittgenstein’s Attitudes Fabien S
Page 292 and 293: view of logic, in accordance with h
Page 294 and 295: Warum man auf transzendentalphiloso
Page 296 and 297: Making the Mind Higher-Level Elizab
Page 298 and 299: Literature Churchland, P. M. (1995)
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Mental Causation: A Lesson from Act
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Again, this is mistaken. Non-reduct
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auf alle Arten von kontingenten Pro
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Reduction, Sets, and Properties Ben
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Literature Egan, Andy (2004): ‘Se
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there is a tension between evaluati
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The Elimination of Meaning in Compu
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sufficient to explain all of the em
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that 'A' and 'A' could never be tok
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the necktie sense) can differ in wh
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Supervenience and ‘Should’ Arto
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word 'norm' can be thought to expre
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Rule-following as Coordination: A G
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vast majority are bent: gruesome, g
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human life, the violent condition o
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A Division in Mind. The Misconceive
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A Division in Mind. The Misconceive
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could then deduce (1c) and conclude
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Neutral Monism. A Miraculous, Incoh
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Neutral Monism. A Miraculous, Incoh
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A somewhat Eliminativist Proposal a
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Impliziert der intentionale Redukti
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Impliziert der intentionale Redukti
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Structure of the Paradoxes, Structu
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Structure of the Paradoxes, Structu
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that he was working on a translatio
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Objects of Perception, Objects of S
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Objects of Perception, Objects of S
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Let us take the example of the hypo
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Reducing Sets to Modalities Rafał
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variables ai that (under an interpr
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Are Lamarckian Explanations Fully R
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A Note on Tractatus 5.521 Nuno Vent
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And he goes on saying, referring to
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The Place of Theory Reduction in th
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Ethik als irreduzibles Supervenienz
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unabhängig von denen ihrer Mitglie
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Das ‘schwierige Problem’ des Be
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The Supervenience Argument, Levels,
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The Supervenience Argument, Levels,
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their relations both to the physica
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On the Characterization of Objects
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On the Characterization of Objects
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The Functional Unity of Special Sci
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size, location, temporal characteri
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Transcendental Philosophy and Mind-
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From Topology to Logic. The Neural
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From Topology to Logic. The Neural
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The Calculus of Inductive Construct
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The Four-Color Theorem, Testimony a
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experience. Of course, a detailed a
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Clearly x = y → x = ext y holds,
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Intentional Fundamentalism Petri Yl
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The second dimension to be consider
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The very existence of the special s
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Heil, J. (1999), “Multiple Realiz
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independent of what is the fact, fa
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415
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Publications of the Austrian Ludwig
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