Reduction and Elimination in Philosophy and the Sciences

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independent of what is the fact, facts cannot affect the web of objects (though even here one could find some points for discussion). More, since the substance comprises all possibilities, every possible world, no matter how different from ours, should have the same substance. The congruence of both ontologies seems even deeper when we consider characteristic of (eternal) objects. Whitehead gives twofold characteristics of EO: Individual essence of EO determines its particular, unique individuality; for example red colour (particular shade of red) is what it is without any reference or relation to other beings whatsoever (facts, objects). The same colour may determine entities in many different ways staying identical self. To put it other words, no matter how given EO ingresses into actuality, how it is realised, each time it provides identical unique contribution to reality. EO is thus transcendent in respect to every actual entity, its relations to facts are external to it. In this sense EO is abstract – but to be abstract does not mean to be disconnected from a fact. Transcendence described above is a reason why we should think of EO as relations rather than properties (beside the fact that Whiteheadian facts are not substances that may gain or loose properties). Relations, contrary to properties, cannot be ascribed to one object, thus EOs are relations with many arguments that transcend each of them. Now, one of the main points of Whiteheads philosophical objection is so called theory of simple location, according to which all entities are related to space in a simple manner, that is one and only one location can be ascribed to them (no matter whether we take absolute or relative space). For Whitehead ingression of EO into actuality yields complicated web of their relations to space (different for example in a mirror image or in a simple perception of a red object). Whitehead stresses that relations are primal to properties. EO’s ingression into actuality is not embodiment of a property in a thing (since there are no things) but it relates facts. It does not mean that EOs are relations as such (at least) not all of them, but that they are by their nature relational, contrary to properties which are private (excluding) in character. To point location of EO one has to point the whole web of relations (ex. I see here a green leaf being there). EOs as pure potentials for determination have to be in mutual relations among themselves. It stems from their pure potentiality that all possible relations to other EOs should be included in it - every relationship, which is possible, is thereby in the realm of possibility. It belongs to their essence that they can jointly determine facts. There are two types of EOs: simple and complex. Ingression of simple EOs does not necessarily imply ingression of other EOs, though “in fact” EOs always determine facts as patterns. There have to be simple EOs that are the fundaments of each hierarchy of patterns. Similarly in Tractatus there have to be objects which are simple, they do not comprise other objects. The web of mutual relations of EO is their relational essence. Its function is twofold: it determines all relations of given EO to all other EO and it also includes general possibility of determining facts. General means here that no EO simple or complex could be a cause of how matters really happen. So it belongs to EO’s nature to be generally realizable, otherwise they would be nonentities. The above characteristic corresponds almost entirely to Wittgensteinian characteristic of objects. On the one hand they have form which consists of relations to Are Tractarian Objects Whitehead’s Pure Potentials? — Piotr Żuchowski other objects. It is essential for objects that they should be constituents of possible states of affairs, and the form consists of all possible configurations, no other possible configurations are left to be found or added later, there is nothing accidental in the form. Relations to other objects are then internal to the object. Object have relational essence, it is their internal structure. This structure is independent of what is the case, the actual flow of things cannot affect the structure, otherwise there would be nothing stable in the reality. On the other hand the substance of the world is not only form but also content [2.025]. The content should consist of some internal qualities other than the logical structure: for example redness as a first-order internal quality and being a color which could be conceived as a second-order quality i.e. internal structure determining what composition may the red color come into (Stenius 1981: 79-81). These internal qualities could correspond to individual essence of EO. But there is a problem with the above characteristic. As 2.0231 states, if two objects have the same logical form, the only distinction between them, apart from their external properties, is that they are different (external properties mean here being a component of existing sate of affairs). It follows that the form excludes other individual characteristic of an object whatsoever. All properties of an object are relational, object possesses them only with respect to other objects, being a component of all possible states of affairs. An object as such is undifferentiated from other objects. How then objects obtain their individuality? Are they to be conceived as points of geometrical plane – each point is individual only due to infinite boundle of relations to other points (ie. due to its relational essence). This consequence is accepted by nominalistic interpretation mentioned above (Wolniewicz 1968: 85). Similarly Whitehead holds that in isolation EOs are undifferentiated nonentities. More, according to Whitehead relational essence is not unique to a given EO, each EO stands in a uniform web of relations. No matter which system we consider one can ask then, what determines which relations are possible and which are not? Could laws of reality, of logic be different? How “rich” is the structure: are there only logical relations of exclusion, implication and are objects only kind of logical variables in these relations? Another difficulty I should point out is connected with the interpretation of Fact Ontology according to which primary mode of existence belong exclusively to facts, other entities are derivative beings. If it is so, then one can protest that there could not be any unalterable substance of the world, which after all seems to be necessary element. That’s the reason why Whitehead postulates that there should be a primordial fact that valuates whole multiplicity of EOs, establishing all possible connections among mere multiplicity of EOs. Whitehead describes it as a kind of primordial God’s vision and regards such an entity indispensable element of any sound metaphysics. It seems to me however that this primordial valuation can be conceived as an act of establishing Laws of Nature for a given reality, setting up boundary conditions by some quantum fluctuations from which our reality begins as it is described in some multiverse cosmological scenarios. It follows that this primordial fact introduces a matrix that would serve as a substance by providing a stable structure determining facts coming into being. However, if substance of the world is to be something common to all possible worlds, it requires that objects, which are to be connected, should have some content - internal qualities other than the logical structure, as I tried to argue. 413
Both systems may be called Fact Ontologies, though while Whitehead’s philosophy is procesualism, Wittgenstein’s is not. Wittgenstein does not have much, if anything, to say about the process facts become and how they can be bounded together; for Whitehead – contrary – these are main questions. Undoubtedly Wittgenstein would treat Whitehead’s description of process of facts’ becoming as “improper” metaphysics, nonetheless structurally both ontologies are deeply similar. 414 Are Tractarian Objects Whitehead’s Pure Potentials? — Piotr Żuchowski Literature Stenius, Erik, 1981, Wittgenstein’s Tractatus, Greenwood Press, Publishers, Westport, Connecticut Wolniewicz, Bogusław, 1968, Rzeczy i Fakty, Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe
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31 Alexander Hieke Hannes Leitgeb H
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Reduktion und Elimination in Philos
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Distributors Die Österreichische L
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6 Inhalt / Contents Wittgenstein me
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8 Inhalt / Contents The Evolution o
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Formal Mechanisms for Reduction in
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4. Property language and theoretica
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imperatives, or commands in the for
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Referential Practice and the Lure o
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The Augustinian account confuses mo
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hurried to fix it on the page. The
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The Essence (?) of Color, According
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Literature Austin, James 1980 “Wi
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Wittgenstein’s Externalism - Gett
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Informal Reduction E.P. Brandon, Ca
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An Anti-Reductionist Argument Based
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An Anti-Reductionist Argument Based
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Did I Do It? -Yeah, You Did! Wittge
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Literature Did I Do It? -Yeah, You
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tween the two approaches. The task
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On Two Recent Defenses of The Simpl
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On Two Recent Defenses of The Simpl
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Queen Victoria’s Dying Thoughts T
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Diagonalization. The Liar Paradox,
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Proof: Given a function ƒ from con
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that I am sure that it is true that
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experiencing something as a red pen
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There can be Causal without Ontolog
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There can be Causal without Ontolog
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objects. But they also leave unansw
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The Knower Paradox and the Quantifi
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The Knower Paradox and the Quantifi
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lent. It also implies that an inven
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The Scapegoat Theory of Causality M
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We may have evolved a specialized c
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easoning have their source in the l
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Wittgenstein on Frazer and Explanat
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genstein 1993, p. 143). In order to
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an adequate syntactic analysis of o
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Wittgenstein meets ÖGS: Wovon man
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Wittgenstein meets ÖGS: Wovon man
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3. Der Elementarsatz wird als Relat
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Literatur Glock, Hans Johann 2006
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Explaining the Brain: Ruthless Redu
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Occam’s Razor in the Theory of Th
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Literature Campbell, Donald T. 1987
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Die Nichtreduzierbarkeit der klassi
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Literatur Die Nichtreduzierbarkeit
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Let T I be the minimal theory of tr
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Does Bradley’s Regress Support No
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(3) Mutatis mutandis, realism has t
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Zeitliche Ontologie und zeitliche R
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Betrachtung ontologischer Fragen, M
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The decisive consequences of this a
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Benacerraf and Bad Company (An Atta
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offer a solution to the bad company
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Literature Benacerraf, Paul 1965
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"PA" by using "PA* ", at least at t
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Hard Naturalism and its Puzzles Ren
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The Mind-Body-Problem and Score-Kee
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mental properties, for instance, or
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kommt es zu einem gravierenden Miss
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Reduction Revisited: The Ontologica
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4. Conclusion Reduction Revisited:
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All in all, we have seen that reduc
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Physicalism Without the A Priori Pa
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Literature Cartwright, Nancy 1999:
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Wittgensteins Projektionsmethode al
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Schlussbemerkungen Wittgensteins Pr
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intentional states requires functio
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Relating Theories. Models and Struc
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Literature Relating Theories. Model
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e invoked in response to the questi
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Do Brains Think? Christopher Humphr
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4. Conclusion So do brains think or
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How Metaphors Alter the World-Pictu
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The Modal Supervenience of the Conc
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Literature van der Auwera, Johan an
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3. The Determination of Form by Syn
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Zwischen Humes Gesetz und „Sollen
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Assessing Humean Supervenience Amir
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determination thesis; it fails as a
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Aus der obigen Definition folgt, da
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Ding-Ontology of Aristotle vs. Sach
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Ding-Ontology of Aristotle vs. Sach
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How do Moral Principles Figure in M
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“Downward Causation”: Emergent,
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“Downward Causation”: Emergent,
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A with distinguished subset Z of te
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A Metaphysically Moderate Version o
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Literature Balashov, Yuri 2002 ''Wh
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“In der Frage liegt ein Fehler”
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Problems with Psychophysical Identi
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identity theory, or as a predecesso
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of the world. It only matters that
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Four Anti-reductionist Dogmas in th
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Four Anti-reductionist Dogmas in th
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notion of time and requires that so
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Some Remarks on Wittgenstein and Ty
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Some Remarks on Wittgenstein and Ty
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concrete particulars can be subject
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phenomenal concept of experiencing
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Metaphorische Bedeutung als virtus
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speaker is then attaching a special
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„Vom Weißdorn und vom Propheten
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„Die Einheit hören“ - Einige
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„Die Einheit hören“ - Einige
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S4) the necessity of arithmetic is
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Getting out from Inside: Why the Cl
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Dispensing with Particulars: Unders
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Literature Dispensing with Particul
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Reichenbach’s Concept of Logical
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Defining Ontological Naturalism Mar
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Literature Jackson, Frank 1986. “
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properties are located. This proces
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‘our conceptual scheme’ “is c
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Properties and Reduction between Me
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Does this mean that metaphysics sho
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do not pick out pain in a system by
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The Writing of Nietzsche and Wittge
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his teachings. He coincides with hi
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sense of a proposition without firs
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Naturalistic Ethics: A Logical Posi
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Literature Kant, Immanuel 2006 Crit
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What we now require is a bridge the
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Species, Variability, and Integrati
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could mention the many sorts of iso
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to work this way. Classic examples
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The Key Problems of KC Matteo Pleba
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have embraced the myth of prose: it
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5. Prior’s Problem As Patrick Bla
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Reductionism in Axiology: the Case
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developing of cancer tissue in huma
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(2) One-way Nagelian bridge princip
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Rethinking the Modal Argument again
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Rethinking the Modal Argument again
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that we are to find the features we
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Atypical Rational Agency Paul Raymo
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Literature Anscombe, G. E. M. 1957
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situation bieten sich keine Kriteri
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Two Reductions of ‘rule’ Dana R
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one that could take place, but does
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physics is not able to make, since
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Wittgenstein’s Attitudes Fabien S
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view of logic, in accordance with h
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Warum man auf transzendentalphiloso
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Making the Mind Higher-Level Elizab
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Literature Churchland, P. M. (1995)
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Mental Causation: A Lesson from Act
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Again, this is mistaken. Non-reduct
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auf alle Arten von kontingenten Pro
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Reduction, Sets, and Properties Ben
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Literature Egan, Andy (2004): ‘Se
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there is a tension between evaluati
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The Elimination of Meaning in Compu
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sufficient to explain all of the em
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that 'A' and 'A' could never be tok
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the necktie sense) can differ in wh
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Supervenience and ‘Should’ Arto
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word 'norm' can be thought to expre
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Rule-following as Coordination: A G
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vast majority are bent: gruesome, g
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human life, the violent condition o
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A Division in Mind. The Misconceive
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A Division in Mind. The Misconceive
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could then deduce (1c) and conclude
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Neutral Monism. A Miraculous, Incoh
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Neutral Monism. A Miraculous, Incoh
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A somewhat Eliminativist Proposal a
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Impliziert der intentionale Redukti
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Impliziert der intentionale Redukti
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Structure of the Paradoxes, Structu
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Structure of the Paradoxes, Structu
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that he was working on a translatio
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Objects of Perception, Objects of S
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Objects of Perception, Objects of S
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Let us take the example of the hypo
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Reducing Sets to Modalities Rafał
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variables ai that (under an interpr
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Page 376 and 377: Das ‘schwierige Problem’ des Be
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Page 382 and 383: their relations both to the physica
Page 384 and 385: On the Characterization of Objects
Page 386 and 387: On the Characterization of Objects
Page 388 and 389: The Functional Unity of Special Sci
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Page 394 and 395: From Topology to Logic. The Neural
Page 396 and 397: From Topology to Logic. The Neural
Page 398 and 399: The Calculus of Inductive Construct
Page 400 and 401: The Four-Color Theorem, Testimony a
Page 402 and 403: experience. Of course, a detailed a
Page 404 and 405: Clearly x = y → x = ext y holds,
Page 406 and 407: Intentional Fundamentalism Petri Yl
Page 408 and 409: The second dimension to be consider
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Page 412 and 413: Heil, J. (1999), “Multiple Realiz
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Page 418: Publications of the Austrian Ludwig
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